Theses and Dessertations

GENDER AND LIVELIHOOD DYNAMICS IN BAMBOO UTILIZATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION IN BUSIA AND ELGEYO MARAKWET COUNTIES, KENYA

2026-03-13T08:08:58Z

GENDER AND LIVELIHOOD DYNAMICS IN BAMBOO UTILIZATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION IN BUSIA AND ELGEYO MARAKWET COUNTIES, KENYA KAINO, JOYCE JELAGAT Bamboo has the potential to enhance the livelihoods of smallholder farmers, generate employment, and foster community development. However, despite government and institutional initiatives aimed at promoting bamboo commercialization in Kenya, its full potential remains underexploited. This study investigated the gender and livelihood dynamics influencing bamboo utilization and commercialization in selected counties. Specific objectives of the study were to assess: role of bamboo in livelihood improvement and environmental conservation in Busia and Elgeyo Marakwet Counties; factors influencing uptake of bamboo enterprise in farmlands within the study areas; gender dynamics affecting bamboo adoption and commercialization in the study areas; and finally, unique community perceptions and attitudes affecting bamboo utilization and commercialization in the study areas. The study was guided by SRL and INRM theoretical frameworks in addition to a mixed method research design. The target populations were farmers in Butula and Keiyo-South sub-counties who had received support towards bamboo planting in farmlands through the DutchSino Bamboo Development Programme-II and National Bamboo Demonstration Site respectively. Purposive sampling was used to identify key respondents, while systematic random sampling was used to select households for survey resulting in 398 questionnaires administered to respondents, alongside 10 key informants and 2 FGDs. Secondary data was sourced from existing literature, while primary data was collected using household questionnaires, KIIs, FGDs, and observations. Data analysis involved correlation analyses facilitated by SPSS and Chi-square tests to examine relationships between bamboo adoption, gender dynamics, socio-economic factors, and commercialization. Results indicated high awareness of bamboo benefits among respondents, with 87.3% and 37.8% actively utilizing bamboo within their households, respectively. Chi-square analyses revealed that bamboo utilization is significantly influenced by gender (χ² = 14.897, p < 0.001), age (χ² = 29.604, p < 0.001), education level (χ² = 71.122, p < 0.001), household size (χ² = 59.802, p < 0.001), and land ownership (χ² = 23.188, p < 0.001). Notably, 39.5% of respondents in Busia engaged in bamboo commercialization, compared to only 2.6% in Elgeyo Marakwet. Adoption was primarily driven by economic benefits (42.3%), environmental benefits (27.4%), and market access (30.3%), while it was hindered by limited knowledge (37.7%) and limited access to planting materials (10.1%). Bamboo commercialization was significantly associated with adoption of bamboo (p = .001, df = 2); bamboo utilization (p = .003, df = 2); social cultural factors (p = .000, df = 2), but not significantly associated with gender dynamics (p = .249, df = 2). While both men and women participate in bamboo activities (56.2%), women face barriers such as limited land access (75.9%), whereas financial constraints predominantly affect men (50.3%). Perceptions varied, with concerns about pests (59%), land wastage (24.8%), and soil depletion (20.3%), in addition to cultural beliefs such as associations of bamboo with sorcery (15.6%) in Busia. While bamboo demonstrates transformative potential for enhancing rural livelihoods, gender equity, and environmental resilience in Kenya, its full adoption is critically constrained by significant gender gaps, persistent market limitations, and negative socio-cultural perceptions. Targeted awareness and financial support are recommended to foster its broader adoption and commercialization.

HUMAN HEALTH RISKS TO POTENTIALLY HARMFUL ELEMENTS EXPOSURE IN ARTISANAL AND SMALL-SCALE GOLD MINING IN KENYA

2026-01-08T06:25:02Z

HUMAN HEALTH RISKS TO POTENTIALLY HARMFUL ELEMENTS EXPOSURE IN ARTISANAL AND SMALL-SCALE GOLD MINING IN KENYA ONDAYO, MAUREENE AUMA Despite frequent safety concerns regarding artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) activities, comprehensive investigations are uncommon. This study filled a critical research gap by holistically quantifying exposure to potentially harmful elements (PHEs) from ASGM activities and the subsequent effect on public health in Kenya. Ores, soil, sediment, water, staple food crops, human hair, nails, and urine samples from 19 ASGM villages were collected and analysed for trace and major elements using ICPQQQ-MS. Soil bioaccessibility and the mineral composition of ores were examined. This thesis focuses on PHEs, for which exposure risk factors and potential health effects among 144 ASGM workers and 25 residents were investigated using questionnaires. The ore elemental and mineral composition analysis results revealed natural geological enrichment of major and trace elements in the gold belt, with ASGM activities being the primary mode of dispersing the elements. Pollution indices indicated significant PHE enrichment and pollution of soils, sediment, and water in decreasing order of As>Cr>Hg>Ni>Pb>Cd. Soil As, Cr, and Ni concentrations were 154, 9, and 4 times higher than background concentrations. Soil samples from mining and ore processing sites (96%) had As concentrations up to 7937 times higher than the USEPA 12 mg kg−1 standard for residential soils. Soil Cr, Hg, and Ni concentrations in 98%, 49%, and 68% of the samples exceeded USEPA and CCME standards, with 1–72% bioaccessibility. Total As concentrations in 18% of community drinking water sources exceeded the WHO guideline (10 µg L-1) by up to 36 times. Human exposure to PHEs was predominantly via inhalation of Hg vapours and contaminated dust, consumption of drinking water from mine shafts, springs, and shallow wells (for As>Pb>Cr>Al), and locally grown staple food crops (for As>Ni>Pb>Cr>Cd>Hg>Al) and incidental ingestion of soils via hand-tomouth transmission. Human biomonitoring data revealed ASGM workers’ and residents’ exposure above bioequivalents and reference upper thresholds for Al, As, Cr, Cd, Hg, Ni, and Pb with neurological, respiratory, cancers, skeletal, and cardiovascular health implications. Urinary As, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Sb in over 76% of ASGM workers and residents exceeded bioequivalents and reference upper thresholds, with median concentrations of 12.3, 0.4, 1.6, 5.1, 0.7, and 0.15 µg L-1, respectively. Overall, increased risks of non-cancer health effects (98.6) and cancer in adults (4.93×10−2) and children (1.75×10−1) were found in ASGM villages. In addition to observed exposure differences between ASGM workers, residents, and controls, positive associations were established between PHE concentrations in environmental, dietary, and human biomonitoring matrices. Urine As concentrations, for example, showed a strong positive correlation with As in drinking water (coeff. +0.958). This thesis highlights the importance of a multidisciplinary approach in integrating environmental, dietary, and public health investigations to inform exposure pathways, better characterise the risks associated with ASGM, and better understand the trade-offs associated with ASGM activities relating to public health and environmental sustainability. The study's findings have been shared with Kenyan medical services and public health authorities for intervention, including technological improvements in ASGM processes, industrial hygiene, and policy formulation to safeguard residents' and workers' health.

Public health assessment of Kenyan ASGM communities using multi-element biomonitoring, dietary and environmental evaluation

2025-12-08T13:08:26Z

Public health assessment of Kenyan ASGM communities using multi-element biomonitoring, dietary and environmental evaluation Ondayo, Maureene Auma; et. al... The Kakamega gold belt’s natural geological enrichment and artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) have resulted in food and environmental pollution, human exposure, and subsequent risks to health. This study aimed to characterise exposure pathways and risks among ASGM communities. Human hair, nails, urine, water, and staple food crops were collected and analysed from 144 ASGM miners and 25 people from the ASGM associated communities. Exposure to PHEs was predominantly via drinking water from mine shafts, springs and shallowwells (for As>Pb>Cr>Al), with up to 366 µg L− 1 arsenic measured in shaft waters consumed by miners. Additional exposure was via consumption of locally grown crops (for As>Ni>Pb>Cr>Cd>Hg>Al) besides inhalation of Hg vapour and dust, and direct dermal contact with Hg. Urinary elemental concentrations for both ASGM workers and wider ASGM communities were in nearly all cases above bioequivalents and reference upper thresholds for As, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb and Sb, with median concentrations of 12.3, 0.4, 1.6, 5.1, 0.7 and 0.15 µg L− 1 , respectively. Urinary As concentrations showed a strong positive correlation (0.958) with As in drinking water. This study highlighted the importance of a multidisciplinary approach in integrating environmental, dietary, and public health investigations to better characterise the hazards and risks associated with ASGM and better understand the trade-offs associated with ASGM activities relating to public health and environmental sustainability. Further research is crucial, and study results have been shared with Public Health and Environmental authorities to inform mitigation efforts.

Artisanal gold mining in Kakamega and Vihiga counties, Kenya: potential human exposure and health risk

2025-12-08T12:56:10Z

Artisanal gold mining in Kakamega and Vihiga counties, Kenya: potential human exposure and health risk Ondayo, Maureene Auma; et. al... Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) represents 20% of gold supply and 90% of gold mining workforce globally, which operates in highly informal setups. Pollutants from mined ores and chemicals introduced during gold processing pose occupational and inadvertent health risks to the extent that has not been well elucidated in Africa. Trace and major elements were analysed using induc- tively coupled plasma mass spectrometry in soil, sediment and water samples from 19 ASGM vil- lages in Kakamega and Vihiga counties. Associated health risks for residents and ASGM workers were assessed. This paper focuses on As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni and Pb for which 96% of soil samples from mining and ore processing sites had As concentrations up to 7937 times higher than the US EPA 12 mg kg−1 standard for residential soils. Soil Cr, Hg and Ni concentrations in 98%, 49% and 68% of the samples exceeded respective USEPA and CCME standards, with 1–72% bioaccessibility. Twenty-five percentage of community drinking water sources were higher than the WHO 10 μg L−1 drinking water guideline. Pollution indices indicated significant enrichment and pollution of soils, sediment and water in decreas- ing order of As>Cr>Hg>Ni>Pb>Cd. The study revealed increased risks of non-cancer health effects (98.6) and cancer in adults (4.93× 10−2) and children (1.75× 10−1). The findings will help environment managers and public health authorities better under- stand the potential health risks in ASGM and support evidence-based interventions in ASGM processes, industrial hygiene and formulation of public health policy to protect residents and ASGM workers’ health in Kenya.

ASSESSMENT OF THE ECOLOGICAL DRIVERS OF FISH SPECIES DISTRIBUTION, DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE WITHIN THE LITTORAL ZONE OF LAKE VICTORIA, KENYA

2025-04-15T06:53:49Z

ASSESSMENT OF THE ECOLOGICAL DRIVERS OF FISH SPECIES DISTRIBUTION, DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE WITHIN THE LITTORAL ZONE OF LAKE VICTORIA, KENYA MOGAKA, HILDA NYABOKE In the face of global environmental change, understanding and predicting the effect of abiotic parameters and biotic interactions on fish communities is key to conservation and species recovery. A fish’s habitat includes all the required physical factors and chemical factors in their environment. Massive fish kills affecting both wild fish and farmed fish in Lake Victoria has necessitated the need for robust data on fish responses to changes in abiotic and biotic parameters to inform fisheries management intervention. The overall objective of this study was to assess the interaction of fish species with abiotic and biotic factors including food habits; and determine which of these factors govern their distribution and abundance within the littoral zones in Lake Victoria. Sampling was done at 10 sites covering the entire Kenyan shoreline of Lake Victoria. Habitat differences were graded based on assessment of bottom substrate type and determination of key physico-chemical parameters while water samples were collected for analysis of nutrient fractions, Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Oxidation Reduction Potential (ORP) and chlorophyll-a. The fish communities were described on the basis of diversity, abundance and food habits. A Generalized Linear Model (GLM) was used to evaluate the impacts of abiotic factors on fish abundance and distribution. Additionally, multivariate analysis was conducted to establish the relationship between environmental attributes and fish species and plotted on Principle Component Analysis (PCA). To assess the food habits, the food Prominence Value (PV) was calculated and a food web developed using the “food web R package” to show the trophic levels and interactions of the different functional groups. 15 fish species were recorded with haplochromine cichlids being the most abundant fish group. Abiotic drivers of fish species distribution and abundance were observed to be species specific. The most important predictors of variation in both richness and abundance were turbidity, DO, conductivity, chlorophyll-a and ORP while primary productivity across river mouths is a major contributor of fish diversity. Dietary flexibility has promoted opportunistic feeding among littoral fish communities thereby promoting co-existence which in-turn has maintained the high diversity along the littoral zone. Fish species specific responses to abiotic and biotic parameters established form the study are critical towards assessment of fish kills in Lake Victoria. The thresholds generated can be applied in monitoring changes in the water quality towards development of an early warning system for improved fisheries management in the East African region. Exploitation of muddy habitats for bait fish is recommended targeting Synodontis victoriae while the rocky shores are most preferred for harvesting of haplochromines to support the bait industry in the Nile perch fishery of Lake Victoria.

MANAGEMENT APPROACHES AND STREET FOOD VENDING OUTCOMES IN URBAN AREAS OF WESTERN KENYA

2025-04-02T10:53:19Z

MANAGEMENT APPROACHES AND STREET FOOD VENDING OUTCOMES IN URBAN AREAS OF WESTERN KENYA OWOKO, MONICA ACHIENG’ Street food (SF) vending is an informal livelihood activity found in most cities of the world where it meets the livelihood as well as the nutritional needs of millions of city residents. Research studies however indicate that most urban authorities do not appreciate this trade and therefore adopt exclusionary policies towards it. Such policies leave the vendors marginalized and operating without appropriate infrastructure. The reported outcomes of this include foodborne diseases, poor waste management and negative livelihood outcomes for the vendors. This study investigated the effects of such management approaches on the social, economic and environmental outcomes of the trade in selected urban areas of Western Kenya. The significance of this study lies in the fact that SF vending has high socio-economic impacts and that despite the exclusionary policies, it still persists. The study’s objectives were; to examine the nature of SF vending as an urban livelihood strategy, to determine the approach used by urban authorities to manage SF vending in the study area, to analyze how the management approach adopted affected the outcomes of SF vending, to assess how SF vendors in the region organized themselves for improved livelihoods and to design an inclusive SF vending management model. The target population was 500 SF vendors selling ready-to-eat food prepared and/or cooked on the streets of Bungoma, Kakamega and Busia towns in Western Kenya. Descriptive survey design was used in which the accessible population was selected using proportionate stratified sampling and simple random sampling methods to give a sample size of 239 respondents. A pilot study was conducted in Mumias town in Kakamega County to establish content validity and reliability of the questionnaire. Primary data was collected through interviews with the respondents. Observation checklists and photography were used to capture salient features that participants may have been uncomfortable to discuss or been unaware of. Analysis of data was done using SPSS statistical software package version 26.0. The results established that SF vending was prevalent in the study area with a large percentage being the youth. It was further found that SF vendors were hardly involved in the management of their trade nor was there sufficient infrastructure to support their operations. This resulted in negative socio-economic and environmental outcomes. The results also show that SF vendors had individual and communal strategies to help them cope with the challenges they faced. In conclusion, therefore, these results indicate a need for the inclusive management of SF vending in the study area to improve the outcomes of the trade

THE EFFECTS OF FERTILIZERS ON SOIL ECOSYSTEM HEALTH IN TOBACCO FARMS IN MIGORI COUNTY, KENYA

2025-04-02T10:45:38Z

THE EFFECTS OF FERTILIZERS ON SOIL ECOSYSTEM HEALTH IN TOBACCO FARMS IN MIGORI COUNTY, KENYA MOGOI, NYANTIKA MARTHA Tobacco cultivation is associated with soil degradation because the crop is a heavy soilnutrients consumer. Due to this, there is a tendency of using excess inorganic fertilizers to curb the deficit, thus affecting the soil ecosystem health. Use of inorganic fertilizers in tobacco production may also affect the quality of the soil. This study was carried out to determine the effects of fertilizers on soil ecosystem health in tobacco farms in Migori County, Kenya. The specific objectives were: to determine the effects of fertilizers on soil biodiversity; to examine the effects of fertilizers on soil chemical characteristics; to assess the effects of fertilizers on tobacco yield; and to evaluate the soil ecosystem health of tobacco farms. A RCBD field-experimental study was laid in Mabera, Bondo, Kakrao, and Masaba sites on plots measuring 10 m2 with three replicates. Fertilizers used were: inorganic fertilizers (DAP and CAN) (T1) at a recommended rate of 60 kg P/ha and 30 kg N/ha and organic fertilizer (T2) at recommended rate of 4t/ha; and Control (T0) (0 kg P/ha and 0 kg N/ha). Tobacco variety 583V was grown. Data were collected on soil microbial count, weed count, soil pH, available P, total N, soil organic carbon, tobacco yield, Soil Quality Index, and on Ecosystem Health Index. Serial dilution method and microscopy were used to determine bacteria and fungi colony forming units respectively. A 1 m2 quadrat was used to identify and count weed species and their diversity determined by the Shannon Weiner Diversity Index (SDI). Soil was analyzed using the following methods; pH (1:2.5 H2O), total Nitrogen (Kjeldahl), soil organic carbon (Walkley and Black), and available Phosphorous (Olsen). Leaf priming method was used for harvesting tobacco leaves for yield determination. Soil ecosystem health was determined by Soil Quality Index and Ecosystem Health Index. Data were analyzed using GLM and subjected to ANOVA using GENSTAT, and means separated using Tukey’s (p≤0.05). Gram-positive level in VL samples was 3.354 CFU ml-1 in Bondo, while Masaba recorded 3.485 CFU ml-1 . The highest levels of Basidiomycetes species were recorded in Bondo (7.349 CFU ml-1 ) under T2 before harvest. Under virgin land across the sites, Digitaria scalarum was high with an SDI of 0.159 in Bondo. The highest number of Galinsoga parviflora counted was recorded in T2 (SDI = 0.154). Organic fertilizer (T2) improved soil available phosphorus in Kakrao (9.79 to 9.90 mg/kg of soil) before and after harvest. Treatment T2 recorded a significantly high (p≤0.05) tobacco leaf yield in Bondo (2.740 t/ha). Both Soil Stability Index and Microorganisms Community Dynamics Index values under T2 in Masaba and Mabera were greater than 40, indicating they are ecologically high functioning. Organic fertilizer had a positive effect on the soil microbial diversity and activities, while inorganic fertilizer (T1) resulted into the highest weed diversity. Application of organic manure exhibited high Soil Quality Index and Ecosystem Health Index. Organic fertilizer uses at 80 kg P/ha and 30 kg N/ha in tobacco cultivation improved and preserved soil ecosystem health, hence increased yield.

EFFICACY OF TREATING WASTEWATER FROM WASTEPAPER RECYCLING MILL USING A BLEND OF Moringa oleifera Lam AND SYNTHETIC COAGULANTS

2024-02-27T11:58:07Z

EFFICACY OF TREATING WASTEWATER FROM WASTEPAPER RECYCLING MILL USING A BLEND OF Moringa oleifera Lam AND SYNTHETIC COAGULANTS NYAMBURA, JANEROSE WAMBUI Wastepaper recycling is an imminent industry globally to cater for the growing demand for paper and related paper products. The wastepaper recycling industry is characterized by high concentrations of pollutants and toxic components emanating from defibering, deinking and papermaking processes. Inefficient treatment of the effluent from the mills would negatively impact the receiving water ecosystems and health of their users. This study focused on determining the efficiency of treating wastewater from a wastepaper recycling mill by blending Moringa oleifera Lam plant parts with some synthetic coagulants. The Moringa oleifera plant parts tested include fatted seed (FMos), defatted seeds (DMos) and bark (BMo), whereas chemical coagulants used were aluminium sulphate (alum) and polyaluminium chloride (PAC). Firstly, effective doses of individual and blended coagulants were established. Thereafter, efficacy of treatment and microbial load reduction of wastewater from wastepaper recycling using the effective doses for both individual and blended coagulants were determined. Samples of wastewater were obtained from Maz International Paper Mill, using grab sampling method. A completely randomized design was applied, to achieve the objectives of the study. A standard jar test procedure was used to determine the effective doses of individual and blended coagulants, whereas standard APHA procedures were employed to determine the efficacy of the treatment and reduction of microbial load from the wastewater. The data obtained was displayed in tables and figures where appropriate and analyzed using descriptive statistics and one-way ANOVA. The study revealed that effective doses were DMos; 32g/L (144.0NTU), FMos; 36g/L (250.2NTU), BMo; 80g/L (881.0NTU), alum; 1.5g/L (24.1NTU), PAC; 6.6g/L (162.2NTU), DMos/Alum; 20/80% (17.1NTU), FMos/Alum; 30/70% (25.2NTU), DMos/PAC; 70/30% (93.6NTU), and FMos/PAC; 70/30% (110.4NTU). However, there was no synergy noted for blending BMo/Alum and BMo/PAC. The various effective doses resulted in the reduction of wastewater pollution parameters wastepaper recycling mill. Among the individual coagulants’ alum was most efficient whereas among the blended coagulants DMos/Alum was the most efficient. The blend of DMos and alum effectively treated wastewater from wastepaper recycling mill, by significantly reducing the BOD, color, TDS, EC, and TSS to 28.7 mg/L, 14.4 PCU, 267.8 mg/L, 495.6 μs/cm, and 5.8 mg/L, respectively. These final DMos/Alum treated parameters were within WHO, NEMA, and USEPA permissible drinking water thresholds. Additionally, the DMos/Alum blend resulted in the highest microbial load removal by 99.2%. This study shows, the wastewater from wastepaper recycling mill can be effectively treated using the blend of DMos and alum. Therefore, recommend that a blend of DMos and alum be applied in treating wastewater from wastepaper recycling mills.

AVAILABILITY AND MOBILITY OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS ALONG THE SLOPES OF OROBA VALLEY, WINAM GULF CATCHMENT, KENYA

2024-02-27T09:30:50Z

AVAILABILITY AND MOBILITY OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS ALONG THE SLOPES OF OROBA VALLEY, WINAM GULF CATCHMENT, KENYA ISABOKE, JOB The human body depends solely on the soil to obtain essential elements for proper physiological function; therefore, depletions or inadequate uptake of essential elements from soil would negatively affect the health of a human being. Soil erosion is a key driver that may affect soil nutrient supply. The study investigates the availability, mobility, and health implications of essential elements along the gradient of pilot plots of Oroba Valley, Winam Gulf. Soil Erosion is a challenge in the Oroba Valley catchment as the upper part of the valley has steep slopes that rapidly drop from 1,131 m to 929.7 m above sea level over a distance that <1km. This area experiences high rainfall ranging between from 1310 to 2268 mm m-1. The highest recorded soil erosion risk at the Oroba Valley is along the escarpment ranging from 11 > 50 t ha-1 yr -1. An increase of both agricultural land and settlement in the study area between 2013 to 2022 with an increment of 27891 ha and 1958 ha respectively shows the population growth in the study area. Much of the vegetative cover has been converted into agricultural land and wetland with a decrease of 16759 ha between the study periods. Soils collected from pilot plots one and two were analyzed for essential elements and soil characteristics. Soil pH for both the pilot plots one and two ranged from 5.4 to 6.11 which are calcareous while the organic matter (Loss on Ignition - LOI) ranged from 5.42 to 11.12 and 5.99 to 7.82 for plots 1 and plot 2, respectively. Soil Iodine was analyzed in which plot one concentration ranged from 5.33 mg kg-1 to 12.12 mg kg-1 which was higher than in plot two, which ranged from 3.68 mg kg-1 to 4.81 mg kg-1. Thirteen essential elements were analyzed in this study from both soil and plants. Total elements (Acid extract) and plant available (EDTA extract) concentration were deduced. Essential elements Na, Mg, P, S, K, Ca, Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Se, and Mo were analyzed. Iron in soil extracted with EDTA correlated with the concentrations in the plants, with an r2 of 0.4316. The presence of molybdenum in the soil enhances the uptake of calcium in soil by a variance of 2.07, as indicated from soil analyzed by EDTA extraction. Essential elements are majorly obtained through the food chain which is channeled through soil, plants, and animals. Erosion is a main major cause of risk of depletion of essential elements from the soil. The elements' distribution in both plots was mainly affected by their solubility to in water molecules. Each essential element supports the human body's physiological process, which is at risk due to the depletion of the elements in the soil. As soil is the main reservoir that supplies essential elements into the food chain that is soil –plants – animals. Soil erosion and land degradation remediation strategies should be implemented.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS AND BIOASSESSMENT OF THE ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY OF KING’WAL WETLAND, NANDI COUNTY, KENYA

2024-02-22T06:48:13Z

SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS AND BIOASSESSMENT OF THE ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY OF KING’WAL WETLAND, NANDI COUNTY, KENYA WANJALA, STELLA NAMUSIA Wetlands play a vital role in maintaining ecological balance, providing valuable ecosystem services, and supporting socio-economic activities for local communities. However, wetlands worldwide, including the King‘wal wetland under current study, are under threat from anthropogenic activities. Understanding the extent and implications of these changes forms the backdrop of this study. This study aimed to assess the impacts of anthropogenic activities on the King‘wal wetland by assessing the water quality variation, macrophytes and macroinvertebrate assemblages, indices of monitoring ecological integrity and examining the socio-economic status, wetland utilization and management, of King'wal wetland. The research was conducted from January to December 2011, with data collected monthly from four sites each having three subsites. Dissolved oxygen (DO), conductivity and pH were measured in situ using a yellow spring instrument (YSI) multiprobe meter, and aliquots of 500ml each were collected in acid washed high density poly ethylene (HDPE) bottles at each site for laboratory analysis. Macroinvertebrate metrics for the Index of Biological Integrity and Human Disturbance Score (HDS) were also assessed. The plant species diversity was determined by conducting random belt transects across the area, while macroinvertebrates were collected using a semi-quantitative kick-net sampling method. There were significant differences in the biodiversity of wetland flora in the study area (χ2 = 65.121, df = 8, p = < 0.001). Significant spatial variations were observed in all physico-chemical water quality variables (pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus) (p < 0.05). Water pH was highest at Kingwal Bridge, followed by Kiptenden, and lowest at Kesses. The concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) decreased downstream from Kesses (the upstream site) to Kimondi (the downstream site) (F = 7.9732, p = 0.0002). Conductivity (EC) was highest at Kingwal Bridge, while total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) were highest at Kesses, followed by the Kiptenden sampling site. Total Nitrogen (TN) in water was significantly different (F = 34.5343, P = < 0.001) between the sites and Total Phosphorus (TP) in water differed significantly (F = 11.2321, p = 0.0001) during the sampling periods. The study identified a low macrophyte diversity of approximately 20 species, with 10 species occurring across all sites. The macroinvertebrate species diversity index (Shannon) was higher (2.84) at Kesses, while Kiptenden recorded the lowest diversity (2.65). % oligochaetes /chironomids (OC) relative to the total macroinvertebrate; Kesses had the highest value (6.1%), followed by Kingwal (4.5%), and Kiptenden had the lowest (1.9%). Kruskall-wallis test revealed significant differences in the abundance of the macroinvertebrate assemblages among the sampling sites (H = 7.987, df = 3, p = 0.0193). The percentage of EPT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera) taxa, an indicator of stream health, was highest at Kesses and lowest at Kingwal Bridge. These abundances were significantly different across the study sites (H = 5.1322, df = 3, p = 0.002). The upstream Kesses site had the highest Index of Biological Integrity (IBI) score and the lowest Human Disturbance Index (HDI) score. The analysis revealed a significant negative relationship (p < 0.05) between the Macroinvertebrate Index of Biotic Integrity (M-IBI) and Human Disturbance Index (HDI, indicating that anthropogenic activities degraded water quality, macrophytes, and macroinvertebrates diversity among the sites. Socio-economic data was collected using a household survey. The findings revealed a ranking order of decreasing importance: grains (98.4%), vegetables (88.9%), papyrus (85.7%), grass (82.7%), water (77.8%), and fodder (77.8%). Social services provided by the wetland included water recharge (75.3%), cultural practices (54.6%), flood control (53.5%), and erosion protection (43.4%). The dominant plant species were Aeschynomene abyssinica (48.8%), Carex pendula (45.8%), Cyperus papyrus (44.5%), and Lemna minor (32.3. The most commonly reported animal species by the majority of respondents were sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei) (80.2%), and cranes (65.3%). Management and conservation strategies, implemented in time, should be embraced.