School of Environmental Science and Natural Resource Management

IMPACT OF LAND USE CHANGES ON MIGRATORY WILDEBEESTS AND ZEBRAS IN KITENGELA CONSERVATION AREA, KENYA

Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT

IMPACT OF LAND USE CHANGES ON MIGRATORY WILDEBEESTS AND ZEBRAS IN KITENGELA CONSERVATION AREA, KENYA OMONDI, OUMA Wildlife migratory corridors and dispersal areas play a critical role in maintaining the ecological integrity of protected areas. However, increasing land use changes pose serious threats to these vital ecosystems. This study investigated the impacts of land use changes on migratory wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and zebra (Equus quagga) in the Kitengela migratory corridor and dispersal area adjacent to Nairobi National Park. The study aimed to analyse the extent and trends of land use changes between 1988 and 2020; evaluate the relationship between migratory wild ungulate population trends and the increase in human population and changes in land use; determine the major drivers of these changes; and assess the impacts of land use changes on habitat, mortality, and behaviour of migratory wild ungulate populations in the area. The research utilised a mixed-methods approach, combining satellite imagery analysis, human population census data, wildlife population counts, direct observations, household interviews, and conversations with selected community members. A total of 110 households were surveyed using structured questionnaires to assess perceptions of land use changes in the area. Land use classification based on Landsat imagery for 1988 and 2020 revealed that approximately 61.4% of Kitengela’s natural habitats were converted to bare land, cultivated land, and artificial surfaces, primarily driven by urban expansion, industrialisation, and agriculture. Changes in land use and rapid human population increase were associated with reduced migratory ungulate numbers, survival, and movement in and out of Nairobi National Park. The results also showed that migratory ungulates exhibit strong dependence on grassland and riverine habitats and show negative associations with cultivated, bare, and artificial surfaces, underscoring the ecological consequences of land transformation. Major drivers of land use changes included rapid human population growth (90%), agricultural intensification (51.8%), urbanisation (39.1%), changes in land tenure systems (15.5%), economic factors (8.2%), climate change (4.5%), fire (3.6%), and resource extraction activities (1.8%). Analysis of migratory wild ungulate populations showed significant population declines over the three-decade period, with habitat fragmentation emerging as the leading impact factor (91.8%). Land subdivision, fencing, and infrastructure development were identified as key barriers disrupting traditional migration routes and reducing habitat connectivity. The study recommends integrated land use planning, community-based wildlife corridor conservation, and habitat connectivity restoration to safeguard migratory ungulate populations in this rapidly urbanizing landscape. Further research should assess the long-term ecological effects of fragmentation, impacts of large-scale farming, and linkages between land use changes and climate variability in the Kitengela landscape.

CHARACTERIZATION OF CANKER-CAUSING FUNGI ON MELIA VOLKENSII AND AZADIRACHTA INDICA TREES IN THE DRYLANDS OF KENYA.

Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT

CHARACTERIZATION OF CANKER-CAUSING FUNGI ON MELIA VOLKENSII AND AZADIRACHTA INDICA TREES IN THE DRYLANDS OF KENYA. MUTHAMA, ANGELA About 80% of Kenya’s land area has been classified as Arid and Semi-Arid lands, and experiences high temperatures and low erratic rainfall throughout the year which leads to water scarcity, degraded and poor soils leading to resource conflicts. In the search for suitable tree species for agroforestry and landscape restoration in Kenya’s ASALs two Meliaceae tree species, indigenous Melia volkensii (Geurke) and exotic Azadirachta indica (A. Juss.) were selected for health status research. Six (6) counties from Coastal and Eastern regions of Kenya were identified for the study. Systematic sampling was undertaken through a survey of the health status of the two tree species to identify fungi associated in the wild and on farms. In the laboratory, standard fungal isolation procedures were employed in culturing the emerging fungi on 2% Malt Extract agar (MEA) and incubated at 25 o C for 14 days. Emerging cultures were sub-cultured into pure cultures through single-spore isolation. Eighty-six (86) isolates were selected from the common fungal groups from the two species for Deoxyribonucleic acid extraction and amplification of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and translocation elongation factor (Tef) - 1-alpha gene regions Nine (9) species isolated from the Botryosphaeriaceae, were selected for pathogenicity tests under glass house conditions with average temperature of 28 o C. Statistical analyses used were analysis of variance and phylogenetic analyses. Symptoms found in the field associated with Melia volkensii were dieback and canker with resin flow while symptoms on Azadirachta indica were dieback with dry cankers. The combined percentages of canker and dieback were 32%, cankers only 13%, shoot die-back 10%, while 42% of the trees sampled were categorized as healthy and less than 2.5 % were dead or dying. The disease severity was higher in Melia volkensii >45 % than in Azadirachta indica >40 -<65 %. In total 484 pieces of diseased Melia were cultured using standard laboratory fungal isolation procedures out of which 1452 isolates were realized. Likewise, 694 isolates were made for A. indica. Morphological identification of the fungi isolated revealed 8 fungal groups from M. volkensii and 6 groups from A. indica. Molecular identification grouped the majority of isolates to the family Botryosphaeriaceae (51%). Three (3) of the Botryosphaeriaceae species belonged to the genus Lasiodiplodia namely L. pseudotheobromae, L. theobromae and L. parva. Phylogenetic analysis showed that most of the fungal groups identified occurred on both tree species and grouped into same clades. Pathogenicity tests showed that the L. pseudotheobromae species was most virulent to both M. volkensii and A. indica while L. theobromae was least virulent to both tree species. Wilting and necrosis was recorded within 7 days of inoculation, but wound healing occurred on both species after 12 weeks. A. indica had an average lesion of 8cm compared to M. volkensii with an average lesion of 14cm. The study gives insight into the two Meliaceae species and fungal attacks and could be suitable for dryland agroforestry. Management of the disease and plants in agroforestry in the drylands will further enhance the resilience of dryland agroforestry systems in Kenya.

ASPECTS CONSERVATION BIOLOGY OF GREY CROWNED CRANE (Balearica reguloram, Bennet 1884) AT LAKE OL’ BOLOSSAT, KENYA

Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT

ASPECTS CONSERVATION BIOLOGY OF GREY CROWNED CRANE (Balearica reguloram, Bennet 1884) AT LAKE OL’ BOLOSSAT, KENYA WAWERU, MARY The Grey Crowned Crane (GCC) (Balearica regulorum) belongs to the family Gruidae, which is among the most threatened of avian taxa due to pressure directed at their habitats. Their population is declining at an alarming rate, and it is listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Lake Ol’ Bolossat in Nyandarua County, Kenya, is a key stronghold for this species, holding the second largest population after western Kenya. This study was carried out between September 2016 and February 2017 to determine the population size, distribution, nesting success, and how human activities impact GCC in and around Lake Ol’ Bolossat, which are key strategies to effective conservation of GCC. Line transects were used to collect GCC count data, the Mayfield exposure method for nest data, while questionnaires were used to collect data on anthropogenic factors. Statistical analyses were conducted using R (version 4.3.0) and SPSS v25, while ArcGIS Pro V.3.3.3 was used for map preparations. An average of 315 GCC were observed per visit, representing a mean density of 3.15 birds/ha. Results showed that GCC were more concentrated in the farmland (1.40±0.24 individuals ha -1 ), intermediate in grasslands (0.90±0.22 individuals ha -1 ), and lowest in the wetlands (0.17±0.02 individuals ha -1 ). Fifteen nests were discovered with an average clutch size of 2.33 eggs/nest, which were monitored until the final nest fate was known. The overall nesting success was 20.72%. Nesting success in Lake Ol’ Bolossat was limited by habitat availability and habitat quality in addition to human-related threats, including egg collection and nest abandonment by breeding pairs. Human-mediated effects were not significant in the conservation of GCC exception of hunting, which was significantly different across the 11 villages. For successful conservation of GCC around Lake Ol’ Bolossat, good planning is essential to ensure the adoption and implementation of effective conservation programs targeting GCC; Lake Ol’ Bolossat and its surrounding habitats should be protected, and human access regulated to control resource exploitation and enhance its conservation. Since GCC breed during the rainy season, zoning off the breeding sites during the breeding season could help improve the chances of a successful nesting, alongside advancing strategies and programs that promote awareness on conservation while aiding initiatives pro conservation at the community level.

IMPACTS OF ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITIES ON BIRDS AND THEIR HABITATS IN AND AROUND LAKE SOLAI, KENYA

Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT

IMPACTS OF ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITIES ON BIRDS AND THEIR HABITATS IN AND AROUND LAKE SOLAI, KENYA KIMELI, SHARON Birds serve as vital indicators of ecosystem health and biodiversity, yet knowledge of their distribution, diversity, and threats in habitats surrounding ecosystems such as Lake Solai, Nakuru County, Kenya, remains limited. Lake Solai supports a diverse assemblage of resident and migratory avifauna but faces increasing anthropogenic pressures, including pollution, grazing, agricultural expansion, and urbanization. This study aimed to evaluate bird distribution and feeding guilds across habitat types, assess species richness and diversity, compare relative bird densities, and identify anthropogenic threats affecting avian communities in and around Lake Solai. Field data were collected using point count and line transect surveys, generating a comprehensive checklist of bird species that included taxonomic identification, habitat associations, IUCN conservation status, migratory status, feeding guilds, and forest dependency. Species richness and diversity were analyzed using sample-based rarefaction-extrapolation curves (iNEXT platform) and the Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H′), with Hutcheson’s t-test evaluating significant differences. Sørensen’s similarity index quantified species overlap among habitats, while one-way ANOVA compared bird densities. Threat assessments were based on structured questionnaires and analyzed using descriptive statistics and Chi-square tests of goodness of fit and independence in IBM SPSS software (version 20). Bird species diversity varied across habitats, with wetlands and settlements showing the lowest diversity (H′ = 3.723– 3.774), intermediate diversity in farmlands (H′ = 3.938), and the highest diversity in forests and grasslands (H′ = 4.087–4.151). Hutcheson’s t-tests indicated significant differences between most habitat pairs, except for forests vs. grasslands and settlements vs. wetlands. One-way ANOVA revealed no statistically significant differences in bird density across habitats (F = 0.832, df = 4, p = 0.525). Chi-square analysis of reported threats showed significant variation in frequency among threat types (χ2 = 296.796, df = 10, p < 0.001). In conclusion, bird species diversity in and around Lake Solai is strongly influenced by habitat type, whereas density varies with habitat structure and resource availability. Habitat degradation, climate change, human disturbance, and pollution were identified as primary anthropogenic pressures. Conservation recommendations include the protection and restoration of wetlands and forests through formal designation as conservation areas, implementation of habitat-based conservation planning, promotion of reforestation and catchment protection, pollution control, and community-led habitat monitoring. Integrating climate-smart agriculture, environmental education, and participatory management within local livelihoods will enhance community ownership and foster long-term ecological resilience. Long-term monitoring of avian populations to evaluate the impacts of environmental change on biodiversity and maintain ecosystem balance in the Lake Solai ecosystem. .

MACROINVERTEBRATE ASSEMBLAGES AND BODY SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN RESPONSE TO LAND-USE CHANGES IN HEADWATER STREAMS OF THE SONDU-MIRIU RIVER BASIN, KENYA

Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT

MACROINVERTEBRATE ASSEMBLAGES AND BODY SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN RESPONSE TO LAND-USE CHANGES IN HEADWATER STREAMS OF THE SONDU-MIRIU RIVER BASIN, KENYA KULUO, GIDEON Assemblages of aquatic macroinvertebrates have spatial and temporal variations in structure in response to environmental changes of their habitats, such as streams and rivers. Taxonomic approaches for monitoring the ecological status of aquatic ecosystems using macroinvertebrate assemblages face several limitations, creating a need for ataxonomic methods that are valid, disturbance-sensitive, and cost-effective for freshwater monitoring. This study evaluated the influence of seasonality and land-use changes on macroinvertebrate assemblage structure and water physico-chemical parameters of headwater streams of the Sondu-Miriu River basin, Kenya. Additionally, the study evaluated the utility of macroinvertebrate size-spectrum metrics and abundance-biomass comparison (ABC) curves as ataxonomic methods of evaluating land-use influence on the river’s ecological condition. Macroinvertebrate taxonomic abundance (individuals/m2), wet weight (mg), and physico-chemical variables were measured during the wet and dry seasons in March and September 2024, respectively, from 24 headwater streams distributed across four land-use types: natural forest (NF), tea and tree plantations (TTP), smallholder tea (SHT), and smallholder agriculture (SHA). Results based on water quality showed turbidity, total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), particulate organic matter (POM), and nitrate (NO3 - -N) identified streams in NF as least disturbed and in SHA as most disturbed; TTP and SHT streams were intermediate in water quality. Taxon richness, diversity, and Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera (EPT) indices indicated land-use specific influences on assemblage structure. Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed thatsmall-bodied taxa (<8 mg wet weight) were associated with high disturbance indicators, while large-bodied taxa (>32 mg) were associated with low disturbance indicators and sites. Slopes (λ) of normalized abundance- and biomass-based size-spectrum (a measure of trophic transfer efficiency) deviated from theoretical steady-state conditions (λ=-2.0 and -1.0, respectively), indicating that the sites were disturbed, but the slopes did not vary significantly between land uses or seasons, suggesting size-spectrum slopes had low sensitivity to land-use-based changes in water quality. In contrast, size-spectrum midpoint heights (a measure of ecosystem production) differed significantly between sites, highest at SHT and NF and lowest at SHA and TTP streams. Spectrum midpoint heights were, therefore, more responsive to disturbance than slopes, highlighting their potential as indicators of land-use influence on the Afrotropical streams. Although the ABC curves indicated undisturbed conditions for all sites, Warwick’s (W) statistics revealed subtle differences among streams, suggesting variation in local-scale ecological conditions. This study demonstrated that catchment land use significantly influences water quality and macroinvertebrate assemblages in headwater streams of the Sondu-Miriu River basin. Traditional metrics (%EPT and diversity indices) are useful indicators of land use-based disturbance, while size-spectrum midpoint heights are potentially useful ataxonomic indicators of disturbance in the studied streams. It is recommended to integrate both community indices and functional metrics (especially midpoint height) into stream biomonitoring as complementary method for evaluating the ecological status of headwater streams. Management efforts should prioritize riparian buffers and nutrient/sediment control in SHA areas of the basin, while conserving less-impacted NF sites as reference areas. Long-term and broader spatial-scale studies are needed to validate the stability of size-spectrum metrics and ABC curves as rapid tools for monitoring the ecological status of headwater streams in response to anthropogenic influences.

THE EFFECT OF EBB-AND-FLOW TECHNOLOGY, SUBSTRATE TYPES AND SALT-TOLERANT CROP (Apium graveolens L.) ON NUTRIENT REMOVAL FROM A BREWERY EFFLUENT

Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT

THE EFFECT OF EBB-AND-FLOW TECHNOLOGY, SUBSTRATE TYPES AND SALT-TOLERANT CROP (Apium graveolens L.) ON NUTRIENT REMOVAL FROM A BREWERY EFFLUENT OBADO, ELIZABETH Brewing industries face economic and environmental challenges of water use, energy consumption, and effluent disposal. The limited water availability and strict effluent discharge regulations in the South African Brewery justify wastewater treatment and recycling. Constructed wetland (CW) design and operation have been optimised for sustainable wastewater treatment. An ebb-and-flow technology is a CW design that creates aerobic and anaerobic conditions essential for wastewater treatment. South African Ibhayi Brewery effluent is treated onsite using a commercial-scale anaerobic digester (AD) and activated sludge units. However, the anaerobically digested effluent has high treatment costs and does not meet the environmental discharge standards. Therefore, the post-AD effluent is further treated using a low-cost CW technology. This study investigated the effect of ebb-and-flow CW operation, substrate types and celery plant growth on nutrient removal from a post-AD brewery effluent. Two experiments were conducted; Experiment 1 examined the effect of retention times (10, 20 and 40 minutes) and gravel sizes (7, 13, and 19 mm) on nutrient removal. The retention times (RT) and gravel sizes were allocated as treatment combinations and replicated thrice in a completely randomised design. In the second experiment, an ebb-and-flow CW was used to investigate the effect of media types planted with a celery crop on nutrient removal. Eight media (clay pebbles, clay bricks, sand, bioballs, recycled plastic, and gravel sizes), either alone or mixed, were tested. A 2:1:1 ratio of each media, pine bark and granular activated carbon, respectively, was used for mixed treatments. A uniform celery planting density of eight seedlings per m 2 and a 12-minute effluent retention time were used. Results for experiment 1 indicated significant differences at p≤ 0.05 between RT and gravel size treatment combinations on nutrient removal. The 10-minute RT at 19-mm gravel achieved the highest reduction in chemical oxygen demand (COD) of 8.2 %, 7.7 % ammonia-N and 38 % total inorganic nitrogen removal. The 40-minute RT at 7-mm gravel had the highest nitrate-N removal of 18.6 %. Orthophosphate removal was below 5 % in all treatments. The peak removal for ammonia and total inorganic nitrogen was after 8 and 10 weeks, respectively, suggesting that the efficiency of the ebb-and-flow design on nutrient removal is time-dependent. The aerobic and anaerobic conditions of ebb-and-flow operation, gravel surface area and effluent retention time influence nutrient transformation and removal. Results for Experiment 2 indicated significant differences between unmixed and mixed media on nutrient removal (p ≤0.05). The unmixed media of clay pebbles had the highest mean reduction chemical oxygen demand of 7.5% and 8.1% ammonia-N removal. Mixing resulted in better overall mean removal efficiency of nitrite- N (7.6%), nitrate-N (15.3%), total inorganic nitrogen (29.9%), orthophosphate (12.7%) and plant biomass (11158.5 gm -2 ) than unmixed media. Media porosity, surface area, chemical composition and celery plant growth enhanced nutrient removal through synergistic interactions. Experiment 1 recommends a short effluent retention time of 10 minutes on 19-mm gravel for improved nutrient removal in the ebb-and-flow system design. Experiment 2 recommends unmixed clay pebbles, bioballs, and 19-mm gravel forimproved ammonia-N removal and mixed media for multiple pollutant removal and celery productivity in the ebb-and-flow constructed wetland.

CROP DAMAGE BY GREY CROWNED CRANE (Balearica regulorum) ON FARMS IN UASIN GISHU COUNTY, KENYA

Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT

CROP DAMAGE BY GREY CROWNED CRANE (Balearica regulorum) ON FARMS IN UASIN GISHU COUNTY, KENYA KITUI, VIVIAN Continued loss and degradation of natural habitats force wildlife species to extend their habitats into farmlands and human-dominated landscapes. The Grey Crowned Crane (Balearica regulorum), classified as endangered, is increasingly found foraging in agricultural landscapes due to ongoing habitat loss, raising concerns about crop damage and its effects on local livelihoods and species conservation. This study examined the extent, types, and economic impact of crop damage caused by Grey Crowned Cranes in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya, a key region for national agriculture. Using a purposive sampling method, farms with known crane activity and diverse crops were selected, and data were collected over 21 weeks through direct field observations, weekly photographs, and systematic crop damage assessments. Five common crops, maize, wheat, spinach, millet, and peas, were monitored to determine their vulnerability to crane-related damage. Observations were categorized by damage type (roots, leaves, stems, full or partial loss) and analyzed based on crop growth stages, proximity to wetlands, and crane numbers. Economic impact was measured by comparing yields and revenues from plots affected by cranes to those unaffected. Results showed that maize (0.18% ± 0.06 SE), spinach (3.01± 0.37 SE), wheat (0.14± 0.06 SE), and peas (0.06 ± 0.01 SE) suffered significant damage, especially during early growth stages, while millet (0.00± 0.00 SE) showed no visible damage. Spinach was the most vulnerable crop, with leaf and stem damage being the most common. Crane behaviors causing crop loss included foraging, pecking, and trampling. The economic analysis revealed notable reductions in yield and income in affected plots, highlighting a real threat to farmers’ livelihoods. Nevertheless, the study also indicates that this damage can be prevented using context-specific, non-lethal methods. This study recommends adopting sustainable mitigation actions, such as farmer education, developing wildlife-friendly farming practices, and establishing compensation or incentive programs to offset losses to foster peaceful coexistence between humans and wildlife while ensuring the long- term survival of Grey Crowned Cranes. Overall, the study offers valuable insights into balancing biodiversity conservation with sustainable agriculture in landscapes heavily influenced by human activity.

MACROINVERTEBRATE FUNCTIONAL AND STRUCTURAL RESPONSES TO HUMAN DISTURBANCE AND FLOW CESSATION IN AFROMONTANE-SAVANNAH RIVERS

Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT

MACROINVERTEBRATE FUNCTIONAL AND STRUCTURAL RESPONSES TO HUMAN DISTURBANCE AND FLOW CESSATION IN AFROMONTANE-SAVANNAH RIVERS OWADE, CHRISTINE Freshwater ecosystems in the Afrotropics are increasingly threatened by human activities and disturbances, including agriculture, livestock grazing, water abstraction, and sand harvesting. These activities degrade habitat quality, alter flow regimes, and influence the composition and functioning of aquatic communities. This study assessed the structural and functional responses of macroinvertebrate communities to varying levels of human disturbance, flow permanence, and seasonality in the Wundanyi-Bura catchment, a representative Afromontane-savannah River system in southeastern Kenya. Macroinvertebrates were sampled from 18 study sites categorized by varying disturbance levels (low, moderate, high), flow duration type (permanent vs seasonal), and season (dry vs wet). Physical and chemical water quality parameters, habitat characteristics, and land-use patterns were also quantified. Functional composition was evaluated using Functional Feeding Groups (FFGs) and 14 biological traits comprising 52 ecological trait attributes. Results showed significant degradation in water and habitat quality with increased disturbance, particularly in the lower river reaches. Functional trait analyses revealed that disturbed and seasonal sites were dominated by resilient taxa such as burrowers, predators, and collector-gatherers, while less disturbed, permanent sites had higher proportions of sensitive taxa like shredders and scrapers. Flow variability and seasonality strongly influenced trait distributions and ecosystem attributes, including trophic dynamics, organic matter processing, and top-down control. Multivariate analyses (ANOSIM, NMDS, SIMPER) and trait-based approaches provided robust indicators of ecological integrity and disturbance gradients. This study underscores the value of integrating functional traits and FFG ratios in biomonitoring and river health assessment. It provides crucial baseline data for the Afrotropics, where biomonitoring frameworks are still underdeveloped, and highlights the need to consider both structural and functional metrics in the conservation, restoration, and management of freshwater ecosystems under increasing anthropogenic pressures.

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND LAND USE CHANGES ON KIPKUNURR FOREST AND ITS SURROUNDINGS, ELGEYO MARAKWET COUNTY, KENYA

Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND LAND USE CHANGES ON KIPKUNURR FOREST AND ITS SURROUNDINGS, ELGEYO MARAKWET COUNTY, KENYA JEPKOECH, GLADYS Globally, the combined impacts of climate change and land use alterations have accelerated forest degradation, disrupting ecological balance and contributing to biodiversity loss.The Kipkunurr Forest region and its surroundings in Elgeyo Marakwet County are undergoing significant environmental transformation brought about by climate fluctuations and landscape modifications of land use/land cover (LULC). The reduction of forest cover caused by these changes transforms ecosystem operations and negatively impacts biodiversity, water resources, and local livelihoods. The goal of the study was to assess the effects of climate change and land use/land cover changes on Kipkunurr Forest and its surroundings. The study specifically sought to analyze the spatio-temporal changes in LULC from 1995 to 2024; to evaluate forest health using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) over the same period; to assess temperature and rainfall variability between 1994 and 2024; and to establish the relationships between climate change, LULC changes, and forest health. This research adopted a descriptive research design, integrating remote sensing and GIS analysis, climate data assessment, household surveys, and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) to comprehensively examine land use changes, climatic trends, and their implications on forest conservation. Landsat images were used for land use and land cover analysis and NDVI calculation and meteorological station climate data for analysis of temperature and rainfall. The study relied on data from 382 households selected for interviews, five key informant interviews, including a Forester, four forest rangers, and a NEMA official along with local communities to examine LULC change factors and climate change. The analysis reveals significant changes in land use and land cover (LULC), with forest cover declining from 57.45% in 1995 to 35.06% in 2004, before slightly increasing to 36.98% by 2024. Climate data analysis for the period 1994 to 2024 reveals a gradual increase in mean annual temperature from approximately 20.2 °C to 20.8 °C. Although annual rainfall exhibited notable interannual variability, an overall increasing trend was observed, rising from around 1,100 mm to over 1,350 mm by 2024. The major drivers of land use and land cover transformation consisted of agricultural growth, population growth, logging and resource extraction with climate change acting as a moderate force against forest health conditions. Satellite-derived NDVI data pointed to a little vegetation density increase under ongoing land use stress which amounted to a value range of -0.48 to 0.77 in 1995 then decreased to 0.58 in 2004 and 0.57 in 2014 and rose to 0.61 by 2024. According to research findings, Kipkunurr Forest is under a lot of environmental stress due to factors like climate fluctuation, unclear boundaries, high reliance on forest resources, and agricultural growth. Due to human and climatic stresses, persistent forest degradation continues, especially close to forest boundaries, despite modest advances in recent years in forest cover and vegetation health. The study recommends that reforestation, defined boundaries, controlled grazing, and less dependence on forest- based fuel be implemented by the Kenya Forest Service in collaboration with the County Government and local communities as components of integrated solutions necessary for effective forest conservation.

FACTORS INFLUENCING RIVER DISCHARGE IN MOIBEN RIVER CATCHMENT, KENYA

Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT

FACTORS INFLUENCING RIVER DISCHARGE IN MOIBEN RIVER CATCHMENT, KENYA KOECH, MERCY This study examines the factors influencing river discharge in the Moiben River catchment, Kenya by looking at the shifts in the trends of river discharge, the changes that are associated with the changes in land uses and the socio-economic influences from the period 1995 to 2024.Some of the environmental and socio-economic changes over the period are farm land expansion, deforestation, and increasing water needs of the people. These shifts have raised concerns about fluctuating river discharge, water scarcity and the sustainability of available water for both the people and ecological needs. Kenya is among the water- deficient nation with a yearly per capita water supply being less than 1000 m3; therefore, its water sources needs conservation. Most of the water needs in the Kenyan watersheds are influenced by the human activities around these watersheds. In the case of the Moiben River catchment, discharge fluctuations, declining water levels, and water shortages have been observed but limited research has been conducted to investigate the exact reasons behind the declining and fluctuating river discharge. The primary objective of the study is to assess the key factors influencing river discharge in this area, which is important for local water supply and resource governance. The study utilized GIS-based methods and satellite images to analyze the changing LULC, alongside data from hydrological data such as river discharge and rainfall records. Household surveys and key informant interviews assessed socio-economic factors influencing discharge patterns. Statistical and geospatial techniques were used to establish relationships among these factors, and also hydrological modelling using HEC-HMS was utilized to simulate the peak discharge over the period. The findings revealed fluctuations in river discharge, with a slight but statistically insignificant upward trend at p < 0.05 (Qt = 0.8534t + 112.96, R2=0.0221, p=0.530). Wet season discharge (1.25±0.12 m3/s) was higher than the dry season (1.07±0.41 m3/s). LULC analysis showed cropland expansion (51.48% to 77.67%) and forest cover slightly increased from (30.53% to 31.22%), while rangeland and grassland have declined. Temperature rose significantly (r= 0.926, p= 0.074), while rainfall was moderate (r= 0.751, p= 0.249). Cropland (r= 0.922, p= 0.078) and built area (r= 0.914, p= 0.086) increased with time. River discharge had positive correlations with forest cover (r= 0.964, p= 0.036) and rangeland (r= 0.983, p= 0.017) changes and the peak discharge was 87.9m3/s in a 30-year return period. The results will inform sustainable water resource management and sustainable land use planning measures, providing valuable insights benefiting policymakers, conservation agencies, and local communities to mitigate the implications of the changing climate and land uses on river discharge through practices such as reforestation, adoption of water-efficient irrigation methods, protection of riparian zones, and promotion of sustainable land management techniques. The findings from this research will contribute to improving water conservation and enhancing resilience for this region.