http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/218 Fri, 03 Apr 2026 18:33:11 GMT 2026-04-03T18:33:11Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2237 DRIVERS AND EFFECTS OF URBAN SPATIALIZATION IN KENYA: THE CASE OF KAPSABET TOWN IN NANDI COUNTY NYAYIEKA, BENSON Urban areas are rapidly growing. Therefore, information on the actual extent of urban expansion, drivers and consequences of such are urgently needed for proper planning. The goal of this study was to assess Kapsabet Town's geographical growth, as well as its primary causes and implications. A survey research design was used in this study. Specifically, the study relied on geospatial mapping to determine the changes experienced by the town between 1975 and 2020. Questionnaires and scheduled interviews were conducted among 398 respondents drawn from the local area and County Government officials through simple random sampling. The findings show that land conversion into urban land uses was the primary course of change in Kapsabet. Built up areas in 1975 occupied 16.74 ha (22.4%) and expanded to 38.07 hectares (ha) (26.3%) in 1991, 148.77 ha (28.30%) in 2006 and 348.13 ha (35.6%) in 2020 An estimated 20.16 hectares (36.5%) of forest land were expected to be present in 1975. By 2006, just 26.8% of the total urban area was made up of forest land. In 1975, there were 11.97 hectares of tea plantations; by 1991, there were 38.75 hectares (28.8%) of plantations. However, between 1975 and 2020, the amount of farmland decreased significantly. The key drivers of spatial urban expansion of Kapsabet Town were conversion of agricultural land to other uses (80.22%) followed by development of commercial buildings (68.32% and residential buildings (53.01%) while a few proportions of respondents indicated policy framework (12.00%) and growth of academic institutions (11.05%). Further analysis indicates an increase in production of food items such as milk, meat, fruits, vegetables and maize due to the urban expansion by 1.5% every year. The net effect of increased food production is improved food security in the region. Increased employment opportunities, increased trade, enhanced feeder roads in the region thus improving transport were also reported at a rate of 0.7% per year. Nonetheless, people of the local community lamented the loss of forest cover as a result of the region's agricultural growth and therefore the region is likely to suffer most from the vagaries associated with forest cover such as climate change, which were nevertheless not indicated to be serious concern by the local community members. Key environmental impacts of urban expansion were notably solid waste disposal, about 60% of homes in Kapsabet inappropriately dispose of waste and the town doesn’t have a proper designated dumping site. For majority of the respondents, the consequences of urban spatial expansion were increased crime rates including prostitution. The study recommends for the need, to regulate the pace and scope of urban spatial expansion in order to secure the preservation of agricultural land and overall environmental sustainability Mon, 01 Jan 2024 00:00:00 GMT http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2237 2024-01-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2151 LAND USE LAND COVER CHANGES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS ON LAND DEGRADATION IN ELGEYO ESCARPMENT, KENYA KANDA, RICHARD KIPKEMOI Land use land cover (LULC) changes have become common experience globally with detrimental impacts on the environment. In Elgeyo Marakwet County, agriculture and settlements have extended to the Elgeyo escarpment. However, information on their extent and implications on soil properties and erosion in the escarpment is scanty. This was despite of its fragility, importance as rivers source and tourism. The study mainly determined the implications of LULC changes on land degradation in Elgeyo escarpment. Specifically it; determined LULC dynamics and their drivers, assessed the impact of LULC conversions on soil erosion occurrence and soil properties in Elgeyo escarpment. Landsat 5 (1995) and Landsat 8 satellite images for 2014 and 2020 were downloaded from United States Geological survey website. A structured questionnaire was administered to 180 respondents sampled via snowball method, eight focus group discussions and seven key informant interviews were performed. Sixty soil samples from four purposively selected sites were analyzed using standard laboratory procedures. Remote sensing and geographic information system were used to examine LULC dynamics while Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation was used to compute soil erosion. Differences in soil parameters among LULC classes were tested using one-way ANOVA. The results indicate that in 1995-2014 period, forest, built-up and cropland gained by 411.8%, 201% and 13.6%, respectively while grassland and shrubland decreased by 78.2% and 24.4% respectively. In 2014-2020, grassland, built-up, shrubland and cropland decreased by 79.7%, 39.1%, 21.7% and 11.8% respectively while forest cover increased by 63%. LULC changes were driven by population growth (97.8%), food demand (88.9%) and conflict (44.4%). Average soil erosion in 1995 and 2020 were 14.02 tha-1y-1 and 18.76 tha-1y-1 respectively. Soil erosion occurrence was 67.1% in Shrubland in 1995 but declined to 39.8% by 2020, comparable to that in forest (39.4%). Soil erosion increased with slope and sections with slope >300 encountering the highest (1225 t/ha/y) owing to high rainfall erosivity. Soil properties differed among LULC classes. Soil pH was slightly acid (6.20) in forest and moderately acid (5.38) in cropland. Organic carbon was high (4.83 %) in forest and moderate (2.57%) in cropland. Nitrogen levels were moderate (0.12-0.23%) across all LULC classes. Phosphorous was high in forest (81.85 ppm) whereas potassium was high in forest (872.67 ppm). Moisture contents were 19.70% and 14.34% respectively in forest and cropland. Forest had the most (1.00 g/cm3) and cropland the least (1.40 g/cm3) favorable soil bulk density. There were profound LULC changes. The conversion of natural ecosystems to farmlands accelerated soil erosion and decline in soil physicochemical properties. Accordingly, enhanced implementation of farm forestry rules, land management laws, Land adjudication and adoption of beekeeping are crucial to sustainably conserve this escarpment. Sat, 01 Jun 2024 00:00:00 GMT http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2151 2024-06-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2114 PLANNING FOR SMART TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM IN URBAN KENYA A CASE OF ELDORET MUNICIPALITY CHEBOI, JOHN KILIMO Transport Systems are essential for the development of economies of nations. Even so, transportation itself, and more so, the use of automobiles has negative environmental externalities that threaten the very existence of humanity such the generation of greenhouse gases. Other negative impacts of transportation include human safety issues through traffic accidents causing injury and even deaths. The main objective of this study was to develop an efficient urban mobility system for Eldoret Municipality. The study was guided by a series of specific objectives which were: to establish the origin and destination patterns of traffic within the Municipality, to establish the modal split, to determine infrastructure capacities for Smart Transport within Eldoret Municipality, to determine the relationship between urban mobility patterns and noise and emission levels in Eldoret Municipality and to determine the socio-economic effects associated with urban mobility systems within the Municipality. The study area covered the entire Eldoret Municipality in Uasin Gishu County with an area of approximately 148 km2. The study adopted mixed methods research as the preferred research design involving the use of both qualitative and quantitative methods for both data collection and data analysis. Systematic random sampling was used to obtain respondents who were found within the identified four Gordon points where specific data was collected. Data from nine (9) modes of transport was also collected. The Data was collected by use of both primary and secondary methods which included the use of questionnaires, key informant interviews, observation, use of global positioning systems (GPS), photography and literature from various sources such as books and journals. Data was subjected to SPSS, Ms excel and Arc GIS 10.5. The data then underwent both qualitative and quantitative analysis where the findings were presented using graphs, charts, tables and statements. Findings illustrates that transportation in Eldoret municipality is unsustainable. There is heavy use of automobiles as compared to greener options such as cycling and walking. The infrastructural carrying capacity is overstretched with high number of automobiles leading to traffic congestion. The study concludes that in order to achieve a smart urban transportation system there is need for an integrated approach in the implementation of transportation policy. Provision of feasible and convenient alternatives to car use, provision of high-quality public transportation systems as well as secure and opportune walking and cycling facilities have been recommended as opportunities for making urban transport green in Eldoret Municipality. Fri, 01 Sep 2023 00:00:00 GMT http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2114 2023-09-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2113 INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING OF WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS FOR SUSTAINABILITY: THE CASE OF OKANA WETLAND IN THE LOWER NYANDO RIVER BASIN, KENYA ODARO, DANIEL OPIYO Wetlands are areas, which are temporarily or permanently waterlogged by either saline, brackish or freshwater. They have provided socio-cultural, economic and ecological values to the local communities since time immemorial. They have been utilized as sources of food, water, building and construction materials, handicrafts, medicinal herbs as well as grazing fields for both wild and domesticated animals. The wetlands in the Lake basin in particular have supported millions of livelihoods of the communities living within the basin. However, the utilization of the localized small wetlands has not been guided by appropriate management strategies despite the existing national wetlands conservation and management policy. This has given leeway to unregulated wetland utilization and ad-hoc management of the ecosystems. The situation has been exacerbated by the destruction of the basins’ catchment, which is likely to impact significantly on the wetland ecosystems due to a possible change in their distribution, utilization and management. The apparent change coupled with the rapid urbanization and increasing economic demand and human populations in the basin may result in degradation of the ecosystems. This puts the livelihoods of the adjacent local communities that directly rely on them at risk. An analysis of land use land cover change – cause and effects –in Okana wetlands is necessary if their numerous socio-cultural, economic and ecological values are to be enhanced now and in the future. The study focused on the Okana wetlands in the lower Nyando River basin in western Kenya and was guided by the Natural Resource Use theory. The objectives of the study included: Analysing land use changes in Okana area; determining the contribution of wetland resources to the household income in Okana area; determining the impacts of wetland resources utilization in Okana area, and assessing the effectiveness of wetland management regimes in Okana area. The methods of data collection used in the research study include informal interviews, structured questionnaires, observation, Focused Group Discussions (FGDs), Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), photographs, remote sensing and review of related literature. Both random and purposive sampling techniques were used to ensure that the whole population is represented. The data was analysed using both qualitative and quantitative techniques such as content analysis, Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), Barbier’s Economic Valuation Tool as well as ArcGIS software for the geo-referenced data. The results are presented in form of tables, charts, percentages, plates and discussions. The study has established that the wetland ecosystem has been encroached upon and converted into agricultural farmlands thereby reducing in size and resulting in decline in biodiversity due to habitat destruction; and that the riparian communities mostly depend on the wetland resources for their livelihoods. The findings of the study will help to enhance sustainable utilization and management of wetland resources in the study area and other regions through adoption of Bottom-Up strategy. The findings will also help policy makers and conservationists in reviewing the existing wetland conservation and management policy in Kenya. This will be based on the generated data and/or information on the status of the wetland, its current use and potential threats. Sun, 01 Oct 2023 00:00:00 GMT http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2113 2023-10-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2031 INFLUENCE OF ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITIES ON NYANGONGO WETLAND IN NYARIBARI CHACHE SUB-COUNTY, KISII COUNTY-KENYA OGECHI, BENNETON ONDENG’I Wetlands have a variety of crucial functions, such as flood mitigation, groundwater recharge, climate regulation, erosion prevention, and the provision of water for human use and wildlife habitats. The Nyangongo Wetland, which spans 825 hectares in Kisii County, Kenya, is a vital source of sustenance for communities living in the Lake Victoria Basin. However, due to land consolidation, the conferment of individual land rights, and population pressures, some members of the community have lost access to land, resulting in encroachment on sensitive areas like wetlands. This phenomenon can be attributed to a combination of colonial land practices and traditional customs, which have led to the encroachment of traditionally protected areas like sacred forests and communal wetlands. The study was based on the tragedy of the commons theory, which discusses open access to environmental resources, and aimed to evaluate the impact of human activities on the Nyangongo wetland over the past 37 years. To achieve this, a mixed-method approach was utilized, combining Remote Sensing and GIS-based analysis with citizen science methodology. The research findings indicate that the wetland has been adversely affected due to human-induced modifications such as water pollution, which has led to limited access to clean water and a reduction in arable land. The research utilized image analysis to determine that the size of the wetland area of which in 1984 was 72.85 hectares, but by 2021 had significantly reduced to 17.37 hectares, indicating a significant decrease of 76%. Over the same period, the vegetation area decreased from 609.07 hectares (73.8%) to 148.86 hectares (18%), while the farmland area increased from 135.65 hectares (16.4%) to 473.85 hectares (57.4%). The built-up area, which was previously only 7.65 hectares (0.9%) in 1984, expanded to 185.14 hectares (22.4%) in 2021 due to population pressure. Loss of biodiversity was identified as the most significant negative environmental impact of the Nyangongo wetland, as agriculture expansion and settlement have resulted in the loss of over 460.21 hectares of vegetation. The study's results suggest that to protect the Nyangongo wetland's resources, the County and National governments should declare it an Environmentally Sensitive Area. Furthermore, they should devise intervention strategies to regulate, restore, and relocate any land uses that are harmful to the wetland. In addition, promoting responsible use of the wetland is essential to ensure its preservation for future generations. Tue, 01 Aug 2023 00:00:00 GMT http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2031 2023-08-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2022 ASSESSING THE POTENTIAL OF STORMWATER IN AUGMENTING DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES IN KAPSERET SUB-COUNTY, UASIN-GISHU COUNTY, KENYA BIWOTT, GLADYS CHELAGAT Water is essential for human survival and development. However, many rural communities continue to experience various domestic water supply challenges. The purpose of this study was to explore the potential of stormwater as an additional source of water for domestic use in Kapseret Sub-County (KSC), Uasin Gishu County. The specific objectives were to assess domestic water consumption, to examine the potential of stormwater in KSC, to establish determinants of stormwater utilization (SWU) and to identify challenges in stormwater management (SWM). The study targeted households in rural settlements within KSC where a total of 404 households drawn from a population of 59,746 households were interviewed. Sample size was determined using Yamane‘s sampling formula. Stratified random sampling was adopted. Both primary and secondary data sources were utilized. Qualitative and quantitative data from questionnaires, interviews, observation, photography, Remote Sensing imagery, Digital Elevation Models (DEM) and document analysis were used within the mixed approach design. To establish domestic water consumption, data from household questionnaires was collected and analyzed. Computation of mean was used to determine household and per capita domestic water consumption, while linear regression analysis was used to identify factors influencing household domestic water consumption. To estimate stormwater yield in Kapseret basin, rainfall, soil type, Land Use Land Cover (LULC) and slope data was utilized. Rainfall and temperature data was acquired from the Eldoret Airport and Kapsoya Meteorological stations. ArcGIS was used to process soil data, DEM, and LULC MAPS. Satellite imagery was downloaded from USGS website and processed using ArcGIS. Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) performed the maps overlay and estimated stormwater yield, and applied Multi-criterion analysis to map suitable sites for stormwater harvesting (SWH). Binary logical regression was utilized to identify factors influencing SWU. To determine the challenges of SWM, binary logistic regression and frequency analysis were utilized. The study established that daily household domestic water consumption was 149 liters and 168.8 liters in the dry and rainy seasons respectively, while per capita domestic water consumption was 41 liters and 48 liters in the dry and rainy seasons respectively. Factors that influenced household domestic water consumption include income, household size, distance to water source, main housing type, education level of household head and capacity of water tank. Secondly, stormwater yield for the year 2019 was estimated as 353.38mm. Suitable zones and four sites for SWH were also identified. Thirdly, determinants of SWU include access to stormwater, level of awareness, outdoor uses, and perception that stormwater is unclean. Finally, the challenges to sustainable SWM include unavailability of land, insufficient financial and technical capacity and support, and lack of education on benefits and strategies of SWM. This study concluded that water supply in KSC is inadequate in the dry season. In addition, the potential for stormwater to augment existing water sources is high but remains untapped. In addition, access to stormwater would increase stormwater utilization. Finally, there is a lack of supportive institutional framework for SWM in KSC. The study recommended that authorities need to enhance rural water supply to households and prioritize development of SWH infrastructure to harness stormwater. Finally, communities must be educated on end uses of stormwater and on SWM strategies and benefits. Sun, 01 Oct 2023 00:00:00 GMT http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2022 2023-10-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/1769 PREDICTING URBAN SPRAWL PATTERNS AROUND ELDORET TOWN USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS TECHNIQUES ODHIAMBO, SAMSON One of the most rapidly growing urban phenomena in the 21st Century is emergence of sprawling settlements. Such settlements provide essential services but also cause some strain on these centers. Controlling and managing the growth of such settlements is necessary in order to maximize the services they provide and mitigate against the stresses they cause. This requires an understanding of both spatial and temporal sprawling patterns and factors that control them with a view to enabling planners to predict, guide and minimize patterns of urban sprawls. Satellite data plays a vital role in studying urban growth and sprawl patterns. However, despite most sensors delivering medium and high resolution satellite imageries and development in computer technology, a great percentage uses pixel based classification techniques. These techniques overlook variations in soft classifiers, sub-pixel classifiers and spectra un-mixing. This study therefore used classifiers that combine spectral and structural characteristics, involving rule-based object classification, to determine urban sprawl patterns around Eldoret Town and isolate factors that governs or controls the patterns in order to use them in predicting possible future sprawl patterns around Eldoret town in 2029. The findings revealed that different sprawl areas have different patterns for example Kapseret, Maili nne, Jua Kali showed linear patterns while Soy, Kuinet, Kipkorgot showed leapfrog pattern and attracted by economic factors during 2000-2020. Five of the selected factors, that is, distances to roads, powerline, waterline, employment centers and population density were the most significant factors contributing by 84.12% to sprawling patterns while three of the factors, that is, distance to restricted areas with 6.02%, elevation and slope tying with 4.94% each contributing least to sprawling patterns. The CA-Markov chain and AHP models predicted that sprawl areas would take different sprawl patterns of linear and leapfrog, increasing from 138.91 km2 to 154 km2 during 2020 to 2029, respectively. The study recommends that Uasin Gishu County government should direct areas destined for development by supplying roads, energy and water and control these services in areas that are not in order to control urban sprawl. Fri, 01 Jul 2022 00:00:00 GMT http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/1769 2022-07-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/1735 POLLUTION RISK ASSESSMENT OF GROUNDWATER USING GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGY AT KAMKUYWA MARKET CENTER, BUNGOMA WECHULI, DINAH AYOMA Pathogenic contamination of groundwater due to poor sanitation has continuously posed a significant human health risk. Kamkuywa Market Center a peri-urban settlement relies heavily on shallow wells for water supply and use of pit latrines as a means of fecal waste disposal. This increases the risk of groundwater microbial contamination. The objectives of the were to establish the extent of groundwater pollution by coliforms, to determines the relationship between groundwater contamination and selected risk factors, namely: depth to the water table, distance from a shallow well to the nearest pit latrine, pit latrine depth, soil permeability and ground slope for purposes of establishing the optimal well-pit latrine separation distances under different hydro-geological conditions. 531 shallow wells and 1061 pit latrines in the study area were mapped and the separation distances compared to the recommended global and local standards. Water samples in thirty two (32) shallow wells were collected and analyzed for fecal matter content. Regression model was used to determine the relationship between coliform concentration and the selected risk factors such as the separation distances between pit latrines and shallow wells, the depths of pit latrines and shallow wells, and the soil type as well as establish the extent of contamination and optimal distancing. The results indicated that 67.6% of shallow wells did not meet the World Health Organization and the Kenya safe distance criteria. In terms of relationship, pit latrine depth and soil permeability positively correlated with contamination while a negative relationship was established between groundwater contamination and water table depth. There was no relationship established between groundwater contamination and surface slope. Out of 32 shallow wells sampled for fecal coliform analysis, 31 shallow wells tested positive for fecal coliforms. The study also established that over 75% of the study area posted a high risk for groundwater contamination. The predicted optimal distance between wells and pit latrines in the study area ranged between 31m-33m. The study concludes that fecal coliform contamination of groundwater is widespread in Kamkuywa Market Center. The widespread contamination is as a result of extensive groundwater contamination from pit latrines. The study therefore recommended the treatment of domestic water before use, adoption of community septic system and sensitization and awareness on proper siting for pit lines and shallow wells in Kamkuywa Market Center. Wed, 01 Jun 2022 00:00:00 GMT http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/1735 2022-06-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/1523 COMMUNITY ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION STRATEGIES TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN SEMI-ARID AREAS OF DODOMA REGION, TANZANIA HOZEN K, MAYAYA Climate change is one of the global environmental problems that affect human livelihoods. Extreme events such as rainfall and temperature changes have led to severe economic and livelihood impacts hence prompting both international and national efforts to deal with climate change. However, such efforts face serious financial, technical, political and human capacity challenges. This underscores the need for examining local community adaptation and mitigation strategies as one of the attempts towards using local solutions in addressing the problem of climate change and hence the quest of this study. In particular, the study focused on assessing the impacts of climate change on livelihoods; determining adaptation and mitigation strategies used in addressing impacts of climate change; examining the status of mainstreaming issues into government policies; and examining the role and contribution of actors in facilitating local community adaptation and mitigation practices. The study used a household survey of 398 randomly sampled household respondents, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, analysis of meteorological data and documentary review. Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS (ver. 16) and Microsoft Excel 2007 programs using descriptive statistics, multiple responses, principal component analysis, t-test of independence, chi-square test of independence, and time series analysis as statistical techniques. Content analysis was used to analyse qualitative data from focus group discussions and reviewed documents. The analysis of meteorological data of 30 years indicated an increasing trend in temperature and wind speed and declining mean annual rainfall trend. Some of the major climate change impacts on livelihoods revealed by the study were reduced agricultural productivity, alteration of the planting season, water shortage and reduced livestock pasture. In response, various agricultural practices, income diversification, water management techniques, communal pooling, migration, tree planting and forest conservation were used as local community adaptations and mitigation strategies. However, their implementations were hindered by factors such as lack of resources, weak institutional support and high cost of adaptation and mitigation technologies. The study also revealed that efforts to mainstream climate change initiatives are still at the infancy stage. Furthermore, most actors involved in facilitating community initiatives lack institutional objectives and resources for guiding the process of climate change management. The study concluded that climate change has severe effects on the key livelihood sources and activities in the study area. Despite lack of support and coordination from public and private actors and an absence of concrete objectives on climate change amongst most actors, the local communities in the area were using various initiatives do deal with climate change. This study recommends the strengthening of the collection and dissemination of weather forecast information to help in planning for effective adaptation and mitigation practices; development of clear objective(s) to guide in facilitating local communities‟ adaptation and mitigation efforts; mainstreaming climate change issues to government levels and sectors; and strengthening the agricultural support system by recruiting adequate number of extension officers. Thu, 01 Jan 2015 00:00:00 GMT http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/1523 2015-01-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/1510 ASSESSMENT OF LAND-USE ACTIVITIES AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO LAND DEGRADATION IN OROBA WATER CATCHMENT, NANDI/ KISUMU COUNTIES, KENYA. OWENGA, PETER ONYANGO Wed, 01 Jan 2014 00:00:00 GMT http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/1510 2014-01-01T00:00:00Z