http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/29 2026-06-15T02:23:08Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2772 MODELING RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH SNAKEBITE MORBIDITY USING MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS:A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY IN CHEMALINGOT IN BARINGO COUNTY. CHEPSERGON, KENNETH Snake bite envenomation is a major but neglected public health problem especially in resource poor rural areas. In Kenya, the burden of morbidity attributable to snakebite has been increasing in many areas. Chemalingot in Baringo County is one of the region in kenya where venomous snakes are common.This has resulted to cases of morbidity to go high due to victims inability to access timely and effective health care. The aim of the study was to model the main risk factors related to the morbidity of snakebite using a multivariate analytical framework, in an attempt to provide locally appropriate interventions. A retrospective cross-sectional research methodology was used and medical records of the identified dispensaries in Chemalingot were employed. Patient demographics and clinical outcomes were summarized in terms of descriptive statistics. To determine the predictors significantly correlated with morbidity after snakebite, the multivariate logistic regression analysis was used. In the results analysis, it was found that there was a morbidity of snakebites of 30.0%. The average age of adults with the disease is 19.26 years and the average length of stay in a hospital is 4 days. The rates of morbidity depended on the time of the bite, and those that occurred in the evening and night had higher rates of complications vs. Multivariate modeling indicated that prolonged stay in hospitals was significantly correlated with high morbidity with each day increasing chances by 9% . In addition, patients arriving to a health institution over 12 hours after the bite were triple likely to have morbidity than those who were presented to health center in less than 12 hours . The results demonstrate the importance of early treatment and available health care services to decrease the outcomes of the problem of snakebites. The study will be of immense importance in terms of providing evidence to the epidemiology of snakebites in Chemalingot and will also act as a basis of formulating specific intervention measures that will be directed at lessening morbidity among snakebite victims who are rural poor people. 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2770 THE POTENTIAL OF KENYA'S SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TO EXCLUSIVELY MEET ELECTRIC VEHICLES ELECTRICITY DEMAND KIPSANG, ROGERS This study investigates the potential of sustainable energy resources to exclusively satisfy the electrical energy demand of electric vehicles (EVs) in Kenya by examining vehicle growth dynamics, charging infrastructure development, and projected electricity requirements up to 2063 in tandem with Africa’s AGENDA 2063 initiative. Analysis of fleet data shows that internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) remain dominant, expanding from approximately 1.4 million units in 2010 to 4.88 million in 2024, while EVs adoption, which began in 2016, reached 9,019 units by 2024, with motorcycles accounting for nearly 90% of registrations. Although EVs currently represent only 0.02% of the national fleet, their accelerated growth since 2021 is supported by rising fuel prices, supportive policies, heightened environmental awareness, and gradual improvements in charging infrastructure. Projections from the regression analysis of historical data up to 2024 suggest that the number of EVs could reach 8.2 million by 2063. On the other hand, projection using Logistic Growth Model (LGM), which theoretically describes diffusion of an innovation in the society, predicts that the number of EVs by 2063 could reach 5087062, 9246810, 10795415 and 11122187 respectively for conservative (25%), moderate (50%), optimistic (75%) and original (100%) growth scenarios. Thus, the EVs adaption in the country can best be described by the moderate scenario because it closely matches that from regression analysis of historical data with a deviation of 12.8%. The evaluation of charging infrastructure reveals that facilities remain highly uneven and urban-centric, with Nairobi dominating while peripheral regions lag behind; BasiGo, Holy Family Basilica, and Charge Net lead the sector, and Level 2 charging is most common, with limited Level 3 and no Level 1 installations, suggesting a strategic prioritization of mid-tier charging technologies but highlighting the need for regionally inclusive infrastructure. Projected electricity demand from EVs varies between 24.33 TWh and 53.19 TWh by 2063, and when combined with domestic and industrial growth, national requirements could reach between 54.25 TWh and 83.11 TWh, equivalent to 6193 – 9488 MW. Kenya’s renewable energy capacity is projected to grow from 2323 MW in 2024 to 6887 MW by 2063, hence will be insufficient to meet the highest projected demand with a deficit of 2601 MW. Fortunately, the country possesses vast untapped sustainable energy reserves that are technically viable such as micro-hydro, geothermal, wind and solar energy. Therefore, with timely investment, policy intervention, and nationally balanced infrastructure planning, Kenya has the potential to meet future EVs’ electricity demand entirely through sustainable energy resources, thereby supporting a transition towards a clean and low-carbon transport system. 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2769 DETERMINATION OF DIABETIC WOUND HEALING, ANTIOXIDANT AND ANTI-INFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY OF Cyathula uncinulata CRUDE LEAF EXTRACT IN FRUCTOSE-INDUCED DIABETIC WISTAR RATS KILONZO, MUTUKU The treatment of a wound in a diabetic patient is difficult for clinicians and researchers since it often heals very slowly, due to lasting inflammation and is subject to prolonged oxidative stress. The current treatments have adverse side effects, are expensive, inaccessible and sometimes inefficient leading to death, infections, reduced quality of life and amputation. Therefore, there is a critical need for affordable, accessible and effective alternatives for diabetic wound management. C. uncinulata has been traditionally used in treatment of wounds and despite the wide spread use there is no scientific evidence to support it in the management of diabetic wounds. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the phytochemicals, antioxidant activity and Wound healing (WH) features of C. uncinulata leaves extracts in fructose-induced diabetic Wistar rats. Phytochemical screening of the methanolic leaf extract showed higher presence of a high concentration of flavonoids, alkaloids and tannins, as compared to aqueous extract; methanolic extract was selected for in vivo studies. Thirty-five male rats were randomly assigned to seven groups. Two groups received topical methanolic extract, with one group treated with a low dose of 300 mg/kg and the other with a high dose of 600 mg/kg. One group was administered Floxapen (0.2 mL/day). The remaining groups served as controls, with some receiving a vehicle treatment or no treatment at all in this case diabetic control group. The rats were induced with a specific type of injury, which was then topically treated as per the experimental design. The low dose of 300 mg/kg was considered the lower dose, while 600 mg/kg represented the higher dose in the study. In vitro, the methanolic leaf extract showed significant antioxidant activity at all tested concentrations, comparable to ascorbic acid, as well as Hydrogen Peroxide (HP) scavenging, reducing power and catalase enzyme activity (P&lt;0.05). Additionally, the methanolic leaf extract showed significant protection of albumin against protein denaturation at higher doses. In vivo studies, rats treated with the high dose of methanolic extract exhibited faster wound contraction, with their wounds completely healed by day 21. This outcome was similar to the group treated with the standard drug Floxapen, which also showed complete wound healing by the same time point. The Kaplan-Meier curves for the healing rate demonstrated that the treated groups healed faster than the control groups. According to this study’s findings, Cyathula uncinulata had the potential as one of the natural therapeutic agents for the management of diabetic patient wounds due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and WH properties. These effects indicated that further studies need to be conducted to identify and describe the molecules that act in this way. 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2766 GENETIC DIVERSITY AND POPULATION STRUCTURE IN Trichilia emetica Vahl. IN WESTERN KENYA SIRMA, ELIAS Trichilia emetica Vahl. Commonly known as Natal Mahogany (Family: Meliaceae) is a multipurpose tree of high ecological and socio-economic value across sub-Saharan Africa. In Kenya, however, its genetic resources remain largely uncharacterized. Current knowledge focuses mainly on ethno medicinal uses, photochemistry, and propagation biology, with no molecular data available to describe its genetic diversity or population structure. Without molecular information, it is difficult to determine whether populations are genetically connected or isolated, whether inbreeding is occurring, or whether genetic erosion is already underway. Although T. emetica is globally classified as Least Concern, localized population declines in Kenya indicate that its genetic base may already be narrowing, reducing its adaptability to environmental change. This lack of molecular insight is a major barrier to designing evidence-based conservation, restoration, and domestication strategies. This study sought to (i) characterize phenotypic variation of T. emetica using eight quantitative morphological traits across six natural populations in western Kenya and (ii) determine the genetic diversity and population structure of six natural populations of T. emetica in western Kenya using Inter-Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers. A total of 120 leaf samples were collected from Bungoma, Kakamega, Kisumu, Siaya, Vihiga, and Nandi counties. The morphological analysis revealed substantial variation across populations, with tree height, diameter at breast height, crown diameter, flower length, seeds per fruit, seed length, and seed dry weight differing significantly (p < 0.05). Variation within populations (67.33%) exceeded that among populations (32.67%), and clustering consistently distinguished Nandi as a separate group, Bungoma–Kakamega as another, and Kisumu–Siaya–Vihiga as a third. At the molecular level, 171 fragments were amplified, 162 of which were polymorphic, corresponding to a polymorphism rate of 94.65%. Diversity indices revealed Nei’s gene diversity (H) of 0.34 and Shannon’s index (I) of 0.51, with Nandi exhibiting the highest diversity and Kisumu–Siaya the lowest. Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) indicated that 65% of the genetic variation was distributed within populations and 35% among them. Principal coordinates analysis and Nei’s genetic distance dendrograms confirmed three genetic clusters, with Nandi being genetically isolated. This study is one of the first to assess the genetic diversity of T. emetica in Kenya, demonstrates that the species maintains considerable diversity despite fragmentation. Therefore, conservation strategies should prioritize in situ protection of genetically distinct populations such as Nandi, while safeguarding all populations to preserve intra-population diversity. Ex-situ measures, including representative sampling for seed banks and nurseries, are recommended to complement in situ strategies. Future research should expand to other ecological zones and integrate adaptive trait analyses to support domestication, breeding, and sustainable utilization of this valuable species. 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2764 EFFECT OF MULTIVITAMINS ON THE FERTILITY O F NEEM (Azadirachta indica) TREATED LABORATORY FEMALE ALBINO RATS ( Rattus norvegicus) MINAGE, ZAINAB Azadirachta indica (Neem) is a widely used medicinal plant valued for its therapeutic properties, particularly in regions with limited access to conventional healthcare. It has been reported to exert antifertility effects by altering reproductive hormones in animals, yet the potential modulatory effects of multivitamin supplementation remain unclear. This study investigated the dose-dependent impact of neem leaf extract on reproductive hormones in female albino rats and assessed whether multivitamins could mitigate these effects. Mature neem leaves were collected from Christ Is The Answer Ministries (CITAM) Kisumu church compound and the University of Eldoret. Forty female albino rats sourced from Maseno University were acclimatized for one month under controlled conditions (22–25°C, 12-hour light/dark cycle). Twenty-four healthy, sexually mature rats were randomly assigned to eight treatment groups. Ethanol-extracted neem preparations were administered orally, with and without multivitamins, for 28 days. Post-treatment, blood serum samples were analyzed for follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and estrogen using ELISA at Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA, Tukey’s post hoc test, and regression analysis, with significance set at p<0.05. Results showed dose-dependent suppression of reproductive hormones by neem. FSH decreased from 8.27±0.35 in the negative control to 3.27±0.21 ng/mL in the highest neem dose (100 mg/kg), which was not significantly different in the positive control group (3.03±0.15 ng/mL). LH declined from 6.17±0.35 ng/mL in the negative control to 2.90±0.20 ng/mL (Neem100), versus 2.57±0.21 ng/mL in the positive control group. Estrogen levels fell from 52.59±2.55 pg/mL in the negative control to 13.53±1.25 pg/mL in Neem100, while controls and positive control had comparable levels (50.97±1.36 pg/mL). Multivitamin supplementation (done at the dosage of one pill per 70kg of body weight per day) partially reversed these suppressive effects of neem, increasing FSH to 5.87±0.15 ng/mL, LH to 5.13±0.15 ng/mL, and estrogen to 54.33±1.17 pg/mL in the Neem100+MV group. One-way ANOVA revealed highly significant differences among treatment groups for FSH (F 0.05(4,10) =181.67, p<0.0001), LH (F0.05(4,10) =88.24, p<0.0001), and estrogen (F0.05(4,10) =306.53, p<0.0001). Correlation analysis showed a very strong positive correlation between FSH and LH (r=0.992, p<0.0001), while estrogen exhibited weak, non-significant correlations with FSH and LH. In conclusion, neem leaf extract exerts potent contraceptive effects through dose-dependent suppression of reproductive hormones, with multivitamin supplementation partially mitigating these effects. These findings highlight the importance of understanding interactions between traditional herbal remedies and nutritional supplements and warrant further investigation into long-term outcomes and mechanisms. 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2760 IMPACT OF WATER QUALITY AND ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE ON THE PATHOGENS OF FARMED FISH (Oreochromis niloticus) IN UASIN GISHU COUNTY, KENYA MUTAI, EDWIN Aquaculture is increasingly recognized as a sustainable strategy for meeting the rising global demand for protein, particularly in developing countries such as Kenya where capture fisheries are under pressure. Despite its potential, aquaculture growth is hindered by poor water quality and the emergence of microbial and parasitic infections that com- promise fish health, productivity, and ultimately farmer livelihoods. This study evaluated the impact of water quality on the diversity and prevalence of microbial and parasitic or- ganisms in cultured fish, and examined the antibiotic susceptibility of bacterial isolates from aquaculture systems in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. A longitudinal survey was conducted from May 2023 to April 2024 across five farms and thirteen ponds. Monthly assessments of water quality parameters (temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, and nutrient concentrations) were performed following standard APHA protocols. Con- currently, fish samples were collected for microbial and parasitic screening. Bacteria were isolated through culture-based methods and identified morphologically and bio- chemically in accordance with Bergey’s Manual, while parasites were identified micro- scopically. Antibiotic susceptibility testing employed the Kirby–Bauer disc diffusion method using commonly applied antibiotics. Statistical analyses included chi-square tests for associations between infection prevalence and host/seasonal variables, one-way ANOVA to evaluate differences in water quality parameters, and logistic regression to determine significant predictors of infection. A total of 154 bacterial isolates were recov- ered, with Escherichia coli (34.8%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (21.7%) being most prevalent. Parasitic infestations, primarily protozoans and helminths, were concentrated in gills (p < 0.001) and showed significant seasonal variation, with peak prevalence during warmer months. Logistic regression revealed that organ type, bacterial species, and water quality parameters were significant predictors of infection (p < 0.05). Poor water quality, marked by low dissolved oxygen and elevated ammonia, was strongly associated with increased pathogen load. Importantly, several bacterial isolates exhib- ited multi-drug resistance, raising concerns about environmental contamination and the spread of antimicrobial resistance.This study provides critical insights into the complex interactions between water quality, pathogen diversity, and fish health in aquaculture systems. It demonstrates that disease occurrence is not random but is strongly influ- enced by environmental conditions and farming practices. The findings highlight the need for routine water quality monitoring, improved pond management, and the adop- tion of biosecurity measures to reduce infection risks. Furthermore, the detection of resistant bacteria underscores the urgency of promoting responsible antibiotic use to safeguard fish health and protect public health. Overall, the study emphasizes an inte- grated approach that combines environmental stewardship, sustainable husbandry prac- tices, and prudent health management to ensure the long-term viability of aquaculture in Uasin Gishu County and similar settings. 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2749 MACHINE LEARNING BASED CERVICAL CANCER DETECTION MODEL IN WESTERN KENYA MURERE, JOHN Cervical cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths among Kenyan women, with approximately 3,200 deaths reported annually, driven mainly by low screening uptake (16%) and late diagnosis. The aim of this study was to develop a machine learning based model that would enhance the detection of cervical cancer in Western Kenya, a region that has limited healthcare resources. This study used a cross-sectional study design where data from 968 women were collected, including information on demographics, reproduction, and clinical characteristics. Data was collected from health facilities. The study showed that 93.7% (n = 907) had no biopsy-confirmed abnormalities, while 6.3% (n = 61) had abnormalities. There were five machine learning models (Logistic Regression, Random Forest, Decision Tree, Support Vector Machine, and Artificial Neural Network) that were trained on 70% of the data (training set) and tested on 30% of the data (testing set). The random forest model achieved the highest accuracy (94.33%) and specificity (98.37%), which outperformed the other models and traditional methods like Human papilloma virus (HPV) testing (70-80% specificity) and Pap smear (>90% specificity) for confirming negative cancer cases. The logistic regression model had the highest sensitivity of 70% which was comparable to the Pap-smear method (60-95% sensitivity), but it was lower than the HPV testing, with a sensitivity greater than 90% which makes it suitable for initial cervical cancer screening. The Pap smear results and use of hormonal contraceptives emerged as the key significant predictors of cervical cancer, which supports targeted screening strategies. The findings from this study confirmed there was a significant difference in model performance with partial superiority over existing methods and the influence of key cervical cancer risk factors. The combined approach of using a random forest model for confirmation and logistic regression for screening could optimize cervical cancer screening further in the resource-constrained Western setting. This study has underscored the potential that machine learning has in addressing cervical cancer disparities in Western Kenya, with implications for both public and private health interventions and future research work. 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2748 GENETIC DIVERSITY, CROSS PATHOGENICITY AND CONTROL OF BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF COWPEA USING BACILLUS SP. AND SELECTED BOTANICALS KIRAREI, EZRA Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) is an economically important crop cultivated both for domestic and commercial purposes. It is one of the most resilient crops suited to arid and semi-arid areas. Cowpea production is affected by several diseases caused by phytopathogens. Bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vignicola has been reported in many cowpea producing areas causing reduction in both quality and quantity of the harvestable leaves and grains. However, in Kenya, the disease occurrence status has not been exhaustively documented, similar to the causal pathogen characterization and management using biological control agents and botanicals. This research conducted field surveys in farms from six counties representing different zones to analyse the disease occurrence levels. The identification of the pathogen was done by morphological and biochemical features as well as by analysis of 16S rDNA and its genetic diversity was determined using inter-simple sequence repeat markers. The pathogen cross pathogenicity was tested by inoculating other legumes (beans, soya bean, green gram, garden peas and lentils) with the most virulent isolate. Dual culture and inverted plate techniques were used to test bio-efficacy of the biological control agents and botanical extracts. Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vignicola was confirmed as the causal pathogen in 48 farms out of 80 farms. The mean disease incidence was 44.89% across the sampled sites, being highest in Kakamega County (50.49%) and the least in Uasin Gishu County (33.57%). Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vignicola isolates displayed slight variance in morphological and cultural characteristics on nutrient agar. The biochemical tests and analysis by blasting of sequence from 16S rDNA region confirmed Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vignicola as the causal agent. The polymorphic information content ranged from 0.2384 to 0.4486, indicating genetic variations which was strongly correlated with the differences within populations. The pathogen, infection was observed in all the cowpea varieties tested and cross infection on soya bean and lentils. The percentage disease severity ranged between 25.83% to 51.67%, which was significantly higher in cowpea varieties. The bio-efficacy of selected bio-agents showed varying levels of percentage inhibition against X. axonopodis pv. vignicola, depending on the method and the duration of exposure. Bacillus subtilis displayed the highest antibacterial activity between 68.33% and 87.79% by dual culture technique and between 38.33% to 71.33% in inverted plate method over seventy-two hours. Bacillus amyloliquefaciens showed a statistically significant antibacterial activity between 45.00% and 76.12% in dual culture technique and between 45.00% and 73.89% by inverted plate method. Cyprofloxacin the antibiotic used for positive check, ethanolic extracts of neem, garlic and ginger inhibited X. axonopodis pv. vignicola by 56.3 mm, 38.5 mm, 30.8 mm and 25.0 mm respectively, but no potency was noted for Salvia nilotica. Genetic variations of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vignicola was noted from different regions of Kenya. This study showed that B. subtilis and B. amyloliquefaciens, neem, garlic and ginger extracts are useful biocontrol options in management of X. axonopodis pv. vignicola and therefore can be recommended for integration in the management of this pathogen in cowpea. 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2725 AQUEOUS FLUORIDE BIOSORPTION USING CALCIUM-SPIKED AND NON- SPIKED Moringa oleifera SEED POWDER: INFLUENCE OF DOSAGE, PARTICLE SIZE, AND PROCESS PARAMETERS CHAVAREGI, GEOFFREY Excessive fluoride concentrations in drinking water pose serious public health risks, including dental and skeletal fluorosis, particularly in rural, semi-arid and arid regions of developing countries where groundwater is the primary source of potable water. Traditional defluoridation methods remain costly, chemically intensive, or environmentally unsustainable, prompting the search for low-cost, eco-friendly alternatives. Moringa oleifera seed powder (MOSP) has emerged as a promising biosorbent, though its native adsorption capacity remains limited. This study aimed to enhance fluoride removal efficiency by modifying MOSP with calcium (Ca-MOSP) and to evaluate the influence of key process parameters including adsorbent dosage,particle size,pH,contact time, temperature and initial fluoride concentration; adsorption equilibrium behaviour, kinetic rates, and thermodynamic properties. Batch experiments were conducted under controlled laboratory conditions using both calcium-spiked and non-spiked MOSP to assess the effect of dosage, particle size, contact time, pH, temperature, and initial fluoride concentration. The biosorption performance was analysed using Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models, pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order kinetics, and thermodynamic parameters such as enthalpy (ΔH°), entropy (ΔS°), and Gibbs free energy (ΔG°). Results showed that calcium spiking significantly improved fluoride removal efficiency, with Ca-MOSP achieving over 90% removal under optimal conditions (2 g/50 mL dosage, 40 mesh size, pH 7-, and 120- minute contact time), compared to 78% for the non-spiked powder. Finer particle sizes led to increased surface area and binding site availability, while increased dosage improved performance up to a saturation threshold. Adsorption was found to be pH- dependent, with neutral pH offering the best removal efficiencies for both biosorbent types. The adsorption isotherm data fitted best with the Langmuir model, suggesting monolayer adsorption on homogeneous surfaces. Ca-MOSP exhibited a higher maximum adsorption capacity (q e = 4.98 mg/g) and affinity constant (Kₗ = 0.442 L/mg) than the non-spiked variant. Kinetic data followed the pseudo-second-order model, indicating chemisorption as the dominant uptake mechanism, with high R² values (&gt;0.99) and strong agreement between experimental and theoretical adsorption capacities. Thermodynamic analysis confirmed that biosorption was endothermic (ΔH° = +28.45 kJ/mol for Ca-MOSP), spontaneous (ΔG° &lt; 0), and associated with an increase in system randomness (ΔS° = +85.6 J/mol·K). Thus, calcium-modified Moringa oleifera seed powder offers a significantly enhanced, sustainable, and low-cost alternative for fluoride remediation in drinking water. The findings support its potential for practical application in areas with fluoride endemism, particularly in rural and resource-limited settings. Recommendations include adopting Ca-MOSP in decentralised treatment systems and optimising operational conditions for field deployment. Future research should explore regeneration potential, competing ion effects, and long-term performance in continuous- flow and field-scale systems. 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2717 GENETIC DIVERSITY AND POPULATION STRUCTURE IN Trichilia emetica Vahl. IN WESTERN KENYA SIRMA, ELIAS Trichilia emetica Vahl. Commonly known as Natal Mahogany (Family: Meliaceae) is a multipurpose tree of high ecological and socio-economic value across sub-Saharan Africa. In Kenya, however, its genetic resources remain largely uncharacterized. Current knowledge focuses mainly on ethno medicinal uses, photochemistry, and propagation biology, with no molecular data available to describe its genetic diversity or population structure. Without molecular information, it is difficult to determine whether populations are genetically connected or isolated, whether inbreeding is occurring, or whether genetic erosion is already underway. Although T. emetica is globally classified as Least Concern, localized population declines in Kenya indicate that its genetic base may already be narrowing, reducing its adaptability to environmental change. This lack of molecular insight is a major barrier to designing evidence-based conservation, restoration, and domestication strategies. This study sought to (i) characterize phenotypic variation of T. emetica using eight quantitative morphological traits across six natural populations in western Kenya and (ii) determine the genetic diversity and population structure of six natural populations of T. emetica in western Kenya using Inter-Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers. A total of 120 leaf samples were collected from Bungoma, Kakamega, Kisumu, Siaya, Vihiga, and Nandi counties. The morphological analysis revealed substantial variation across populations, with tree height, diameter at breast height, crown diameter, flower length, seeds per fruit, seed length, and seed dry weight differing significantly (p < 0.05). Variation within populations (67.33%) exceeded that among populations (32.67%), and clustering consistently distinguished Nandi as a separate group, Bungoma–Kakamega as another, and Kisumu–Siaya–Vihiga as a third. At the molecular level, 171 fragments were amplified, 162 of which were polymorphic, corresponding to a polymorphism rate of 94.65%. Diversity indices revealed Nei’s gene diversity (H) of 0.34 and Shannon’s index (I) of 0.51, with Nandi exhibiting the highest diversity and Kisumu–Siaya the lowest. Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) indicated that 65% of the genetic variation was distributed within populations and 35% among them. Principal coordinates analysis and Nei’s genetic distance dendrograms confirmed three genetic clusters, with Nandi being genetically isolated. This study is one of the first to assess the genetic diversity of T. emetica in Kenya, demonstrates that the species maintains considerable diversity despite fragmentation. Therefore, conservation strategies should prioritize in situ protection of genetically distinct populations such as Nandi, while safeguarding all populations to preserve intra-population diversity. Ex-situ measures, including representative sampling for seed banks and nurseries, are recommended to complement in situ strategies. Future research should expand to other ecological zones and integrate adaptive trait analyses to support domestication, breeding, and sustainable utilization of this valuable species. 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z