Theses and Dissertations

ASPECTS CONSERVATION BIOLOGY OF GREY CROWNED CRANE (Balearica reguloram, Bennet 1884) AT LAKE OL’ BOLOSSAT, KENYA

Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT

ASPECTS CONSERVATION BIOLOGY OF GREY CROWNED CRANE (Balearica reguloram, Bennet 1884) AT LAKE OL’ BOLOSSAT, KENYA WAWERU, MARY The Grey Crowned Crane (GCC) (Balearica regulorum) belongs to the family Gruidae, which is among the most threatened of avian taxa due to pressure directed at their habitats. Their population is declining at an alarming rate, and it is listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Lake Ol’ Bolossat in Nyandarua County, Kenya, is a key stronghold for this species, holding the second largest population after western Kenya. This study was carried out between September 2016 and February 2017 to determine the population size, distribution, nesting success, and how human activities impact GCC in and around Lake Ol’ Bolossat, which are key strategies to effective conservation of GCC. Line transects were used to collect GCC count data, the Mayfield exposure method for nest data, while questionnaires were used to collect data on anthropogenic factors. Statistical analyses were conducted using R (version 4.3.0) and SPSS v25, while ArcGIS Pro V.3.3.3 was used for map preparations. An average of 315 GCC were observed per visit, representing a mean density of 3.15 birds/ha. Results showed that GCC were more concentrated in the farmland (1.40±0.24 individuals ha -1 ), intermediate in grasslands (0.90±0.22 individuals ha -1 ), and lowest in the wetlands (0.17±0.02 individuals ha -1 ). Fifteen nests were discovered with an average clutch size of 2.33 eggs/nest, which were monitored until the final nest fate was known. The overall nesting success was 20.72%. Nesting success in Lake Ol’ Bolossat was limited by habitat availability and habitat quality in addition to human-related threats, including egg collection and nest abandonment by breeding pairs. Human-mediated effects were not significant in the conservation of GCC exception of hunting, which was significantly different across the 11 villages. For successful conservation of GCC around Lake Ol’ Bolossat, good planning is essential to ensure the adoption and implementation of effective conservation programs targeting GCC; Lake Ol’ Bolossat and its surrounding habitats should be protected, and human access regulated to control resource exploitation and enhance its conservation. Since GCC breed during the rainy season, zoning off the breeding sites during the breeding season could help improve the chances of a successful nesting, alongside advancing strategies and programs that promote awareness on conservation while aiding initiatives pro conservation at the community level.

IMPACTS OF ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITIES ON BIRDS AND THEIR HABITATS IN AND AROUND LAKE SOLAI, KENYA

Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT

IMPACTS OF ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITIES ON BIRDS AND THEIR HABITATS IN AND AROUND LAKE SOLAI, KENYA KIMELI, SHARON Birds serve as vital indicators of ecosystem health and biodiversity, yet knowledge of their distribution, diversity, and threats in habitats surrounding ecosystems such as Lake Solai, Nakuru County, Kenya, remains limited. Lake Solai supports a diverse assemblage of resident and migratory avifauna but faces increasing anthropogenic pressures, including pollution, grazing, agricultural expansion, and urbanization. This study aimed to evaluate bird distribution and feeding guilds across habitat types, assess species richness and diversity, compare relative bird densities, and identify anthropogenic threats affecting avian communities in and around Lake Solai. Field data were collected using point count and line transect surveys, generating a comprehensive checklist of bird species that included taxonomic identification, habitat associations, IUCN conservation status, migratory status, feeding guilds, and forest dependency. Species richness and diversity were analyzed using sample-based rarefaction-extrapolation curves (iNEXT platform) and the Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H′), with Hutcheson’s t-test evaluating significant differences. Sørensen’s similarity index quantified species overlap among habitats, while one-way ANOVA compared bird densities. Threat assessments were based on structured questionnaires and analyzed using descriptive statistics and Chi-square tests of goodness of fit and independence in IBM SPSS software (version 20). Bird species diversity varied across habitats, with wetlands and settlements showing the lowest diversity (H′ = 3.723– 3.774), intermediate diversity in farmlands (H′ = 3.938), and the highest diversity in forests and grasslands (H′ = 4.087–4.151). Hutcheson’s t-tests indicated significant differences between most habitat pairs, except for forests vs. grasslands and settlements vs. wetlands. One-way ANOVA revealed no statistically significant differences in bird density across habitats (F = 0.832, df = 4, p = 0.525). Chi-square analysis of reported threats showed significant variation in frequency among threat types (χ2 = 296.796, df = 10, p < 0.001). In conclusion, bird species diversity in and around Lake Solai is strongly influenced by habitat type, whereas density varies with habitat structure and resource availability. Habitat degradation, climate change, human disturbance, and pollution were identified as primary anthropogenic pressures. Conservation recommendations include the protection and restoration of wetlands and forests through formal designation as conservation areas, implementation of habitat-based conservation planning, promotion of reforestation and catchment protection, pollution control, and community-led habitat monitoring. Integrating climate-smart agriculture, environmental education, and participatory management within local livelihoods will enhance community ownership and foster long-term ecological resilience. Long-term monitoring of avian populations to evaluate the impacts of environmental change on biodiversity and maintain ecosystem balance in the Lake Solai ecosystem. .

CROP DAMAGE BY GREY CROWNED CRANE (Balearica regulorum) ON FARMS IN UASIN GISHU COUNTY, KENYA

Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT

CROP DAMAGE BY GREY CROWNED CRANE (Balearica regulorum) ON FARMS IN UASIN GISHU COUNTY, KENYA KITUI, VIVIAN Continued loss and degradation of natural habitats force wildlife species to extend their habitats into farmlands and human-dominated landscapes. The Grey Crowned Crane (Balearica regulorum), classified as endangered, is increasingly found foraging in agricultural landscapes due to ongoing habitat loss, raising concerns about crop damage and its effects on local livelihoods and species conservation. This study examined the extent, types, and economic impact of crop damage caused by Grey Crowned Cranes in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya, a key region for national agriculture. Using a purposive sampling method, farms with known crane activity and diverse crops were selected, and data were collected over 21 weeks through direct field observations, weekly photographs, and systematic crop damage assessments. Five common crops, maize, wheat, spinach, millet, and peas, were monitored to determine their vulnerability to crane-related damage. Observations were categorized by damage type (roots, leaves, stems, full or partial loss) and analyzed based on crop growth stages, proximity to wetlands, and crane numbers. Economic impact was measured by comparing yields and revenues from plots affected by cranes to those unaffected. Results showed that maize (0.18% ± 0.06 SE), spinach (3.01± 0.37 SE), wheat (0.14± 0.06 SE), and peas (0.06 ± 0.01 SE) suffered significant damage, especially during early growth stages, while millet (0.00± 0.00 SE) showed no visible damage. Spinach was the most vulnerable crop, with leaf and stem damage being the most common. Crane behaviors causing crop loss included foraging, pecking, and trampling. The economic analysis revealed notable reductions in yield and income in affected plots, highlighting a real threat to farmers’ livelihoods. Nevertheless, the study also indicates that this damage can be prevented using context-specific, non-lethal methods. This study recommends adopting sustainable mitigation actions, such as farmer education, developing wildlife-friendly farming practices, and establishing compensation or incentive programs to offset losses to foster peaceful coexistence between humans and wildlife while ensuring the long- term survival of Grey Crowned Cranes. Overall, the study offers valuable insights into balancing biodiversity conservation with sustainable agriculture in landscapes heavily influenced by human activity.

MODELING HABITAT SUITABILITY FOR AFRICAN ELEPHANTS (Loxodonta africana) AND THEIR PREFERRED FORAGE IN NASALOT-SOUTH TURKANA-KERIO VALLEY ECOSYSTEM, KENYA

Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT

MODELING HABITAT SUITABILITY FOR AFRICAN ELEPHANTS (Loxodonta africana) AND THEIR PREFERRED FORAGE IN NASALOT-SOUTH TURKANA-KERIO VALLEY ECOSYSTEM, KENYA KIPKOSGEI, LYNN Understanding the environmental drivers of habitat suitability for African elephants and their preferred forage plants is critical for conservation, particularly under climate change. This study focused on the Nasalot–South Turkana–Kerio Valley ecosystem in Kenya, aiming to model the current and future spatial distribution and abundance of suitable habitats for African elephants and their preferred forage plants. It also analyzed key environmental factors influencing habitat distribution and evaluated the impacts of climate change under Shared Socio-Economic Pathways (SSP) 245 and SSP585 scenarios for 2041–2060 and 2081–2100-time horizons, using the Canadian Earth System Model Version 2 (CanESM2) model from Sixth Phase of the Coupled model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6). Elephant occurrence data were sourced from previous surveys, while preferred forage plant data were systematically collected along 1 km-spaced line transects. Data on climate, topography, vegetation, soil, distance layers, and Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) were obtained from global databases, including World Climate (WorldClim), United States Geological Survey (USGS), Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer Global Digital Elevation Model (ASTER GDEM), HydroSHEDS, and OpenStreetMap. A Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model was employed using spatially independent occurrence data, non-correlated environmental variables, linear and quadratic feature combinations, and regularization multipliers of 1 and 3.5 for elephants and their preferred forage plants, respectively. Model performance was evaluated using the Area Under the Curve (AUC) of the Receiver Operator Curve (ROC) curve. Both models showed strong predictive performance, with mean AUC values of 0.868 ± 0.006 for elephants and 0.883 ± 0.007 for their preferred forage plants. Results indicated that African elephants and their preferred forage plants are highly susceptible to climate change, with habitat suitability and abundance exhibiting notable spatial variability. At present, suitable habitats are limited in extent, with low-suitability areas dominating central regions and highly suitable zones largely restricted to the south. Forage species exhibit similarly low habitat abundance, particularly across central and northern areas. Projections under both SSP245 and SSP585 scenarios indicate a substantial decline in the abundance of suitable habitats, with a pronounced shift toward unsuitability, especially in northern regions, including key protected areas such as Nasalot and South Turkana. Jackknife tests identified precipitation of the coldest quarter (62.5%) and LULC (14.6%) as the main factors influencing elephant habitat suitability, while precipitation seasonality, precipitation of the driest quarter, elevation, and LULC were the primary drivers for forage plant suitability. Climate change was projected to threaten the distribution and survival of both elephants and their forage plants, with suitability shifts varying by scenario and timeframe. These findings highlight the need for adaptive management strategies that incorporate future climate projections to safeguard elephant populations and their forage resources in this vulnerable dryland ecosystem.

ABUNDANCE AND SPECIES RICHNESS OF SMALL TO MEDIUM-SIZED MAMMALS ALONG A GRADIENT OF HUMAN DISTURBANCE AT MAU FOREST COMPLEX, KENYA

Mon, 01 Jan 2024 00:00:00 GMT

ABUNDANCE AND SPECIES RICHNESS OF SMALL TO MEDIUM-SIZED MAMMALS ALONG A GRADIENT OF HUMAN DISTURBANCE AT MAU FOREST COMPLEX, KENYA ODIWUOR, OUYA EVANCE Anthropogenic influence on biodiversity results from the burgeoning human population and the associated human agricultural and infrastructural needs. The Mau Forest Complex (MFC) is a biodiversity hotspot, however, species are predicted to be declining at unprecedented rates due to the loss of habitats. Using camera traps, this study investigated the abundance and species richness of non-volant small to mediumsized mammals (including small carnivores) along a gradient of human disturbance of three treatments (adjacent farmlands – AFs, secondary forest – SFs, and primary forest – PFs) at the Transmara and Maasai Mau forest blocks of the MFC. Mammals were recorded at 181 camera-trap locations from 246 camera deployments and 5,509 sampling days. From 302,997 images, 47,345 were of wildlife species. A total of 53 species belonging to 8 mammal orders were recorded, with 20 species belonging to the order Carnivora representing seven families. Additionally, 15 species of the order Artiodactyla, 1 species of Lagomorpha, 1 species of Hyracoidea, 1 species of Proboscidea, 9 species of Rodentia, 7 species of Primates and 1 species of Tubulidentata were recorded. While Alpha diversity, as measured by Shannon’s entropy, was not significantly different between Transmara and Maasai Mau forest blocks (P > 0.05), it differed significantly among treatments, with AFs showing lower diversity than both PFs and SFs, and the former having significantly higher diversity than the latter at both forest blocks. Beta diversity differed significantly between primary and secondary forests (df = 1, P< 0.05), primary forests and adjacent farmlands, and adjacent farmlands and secondary forests, and this trend was the same for the two forest blocks. In terms of occupancy of small carnivores, overall occupancy (mean ψ) was highest in PFs and least in AFs. At the individual species level, Jackson’s mongoose (Bdeogale jacksoni), a known forest specialist, had the highest occupancy in PFs and the least in AFs. Detection rates for various functional groups were similar across treatments for Afrotherians, Carnivora, and small rodents but differed significantly for large rodents, primates, and ungulates. This study demonstrates the adverse negative influence of anthropogenic disturbance on the persistence of a range of small to medium-sized mammalian communities at the Mau Forest Complex, with different species and functional groups responding differently to human land-use practices. Particularly important is that the less-disturbed primary forests supported more habitat specialists or forest-dependent mammals and should be preserved to support overall and forest specialist species richness.

DIVERSITY, ABUNDANCE, DISTRIBUTION, AND CONCORDANCE OF ANURAN SPECIES IN KINGWAL SWAMP AND NORTH NANDI FOREST RESERVE, KENYA

Mon, 01 Jan 2024 00:00:00 GMT

DIVERSITY, ABUNDANCE, DISTRIBUTION, AND CONCORDANCE OF ANURAN SPECIES IN KINGWAL SWAMP AND NORTH NANDI FOREST RESERVE, KENYA KABANZE, JOSEPH MUSONDA Anuran species are one of the good environmental indicators of habitat quality in ecosystems due to their amphibious life modes and sensitivity to environmental change caused by a rapid expansion of anthropogenic activities and climate change. Therefore, understanding their biodiversity and distribution patterns is crucial for the development and implementation of conservation strategies. The study aimed at assessing and comparing diversity, abundance, distribution, and concordance of anurans between a protected (North Nandi Forest Reserve) and a non-protected area (Kingwal swamp), which are among the underexplored areas in Kenya. Data was gathered both in the dry and wet season between October 2022 and June 2023 by employing standard sampling techniques for anurans (Visual encounter and pitfall traps with a drift fence). Three habitat types- farmland, intermediate, and forest were surveyed. A total of 1649 individuals from 21 different anuran species, belonging to nine genera and nine families were recorded. Ptychadenidae was the most abundant family from the recorded anurans, while Dicroglossidae, Arthroleptidae, Pyxicephalidae, and Ranidae were the least. Most species were found in the forest habitat (Protected), and least in the farmland (non-protected). The wet season had high species abundance, diversity, and richness compared to the dry season in all the habitats. Forest habitat had the highest values for Shannon diversity (H'= 2.432), and least in farmland habitat (H'= 2.048), even though species were evenly distributed. There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in diversity between the habitats in the wet season, but no significant difference during dry season (p > 0.05) except for forest and farmland (p = 0.014). There was a significant difference in species abundance between seasons (p = 0.001), and between habitats (p = 0.001) in all seasons except for farmland and intermediate (p = 0.826), as well as farmland and forest (p = 0.051) during the wet season. Habitat type (p = 0.223) and season (p = 0.157) had no influence on anuran species richness. Most of the species encountered favored insects and frogs in their diet, occupied terrestrial and aquatic microhabitats, specifically stagnant water, and were predominately ground/wet terrestrial dwellers. The modest sampling indicates that Kingwal Swamp and North Nandi Forest Reserve are rich and support anuran species. However, the differences in anuran biodiversity and distribution in the 3-habitats demonstrate that conservation efforts continue to be a priority. Therefore, Nature-based organizations are recommended to engage communities along Kingwal Swamp and transform the wetland into a conserved protected area for the survival of anurans.

ABUNDANCE AND SPECIES RICHNESS OF SMALL TO MEDIUM-SIZED MAMMALS ALONG A GRADIENT OF HUMAN DISTURBANCE AT MAU FOREST COMPLEX, KENYA

Fri, 01 Sep 2023 00:00:00 GMT

ABUNDANCE AND SPECIES RICHNESS OF SMALL TO MEDIUM-SIZED MAMMALS ALONG A GRADIENT OF HUMAN DISTURBANCE AT MAU FOREST COMPLEX, KENYA OUYA, EVANCE ODIWUOR Anthropogenic influence on biodiversity results from the burgeoning human population and the associated human agricultural and infrastructural needs. The Mau Forest Complex (MFC) is a biodiversity hotspot, however, species are predicted to be declining at unprecedented rates due to the loss of habitats. Using camera traps, this study investigated the abundance and species richness of non-volant small to medium-sized mammals (including small carnivores) along a gradient of human disturbance of three treatments (adjacent farmlands – AFs, secondary forest – SFs, and primary forest – PFs) at the Transmara and Maasai Mau forest blocks of the MFC. Mammals were recorded at 181 camera-trap locations from 246 camera deployments and 5,509 sampling days. From 302,997 images, 47,345 were of wildlife species. A total of 53 species belonging to 8 mammal orders were recorded, with 20 species belonging to the order Carnivora representing seven families. Additionally, 15 species of the order Artiodactyla, 1 species of Lagomorpha, 1 species of Hyracoidea, 1 species of Proboscidea, 9 species of Rodentia, 7 species of Primates and 1 species of Tubulidentata were recorded. While Alpha diversity, as measured by Shannon’s entropy, was not significantly different between Transmara and Maasai Mau forest blocks (P > 0.05), it differed significantly among treatments, with AFs showing lower diversity than both PFs and SFs, and the former having significantly higher diversity than the latter at both forest blocks. Beta diversity differed significantly between primary and secondary forests (df = 1, P< 0.05), primary forests and adjacent farmlands, and adjacent farmlands and secondary forests, and this trend was the same for the two forest blocks. In terms of occupancy of small carnivores, overall occupancy (mean ψ) was highest in PFs and least in AFs. At the individual species level, Jackson’s mongoose (Bdeogale jacksoni), a known forest specialist, had the highest occupancy in PFs and the least in AFs. Detection rates for various functional groups were similar across treatments for Afrotherians, Carnivora, and small rodents but differed significantly for large rodents, primates, and ungulates. This study demonstrates the adverse negative influence of anthropogenic disturbance on the persistence of a range of small to medium-sized mammalian communities at the Mau Forest Complex, with different species and functional groups responding differently to human land-use practices. Particularly important is that the less-disturbed primary forests supported more habitat specialists or forest-dependent mammals and should be preserved to support overall and forest specialist species richness.

ANTILEISHMANIAL ACTIVITY AND TOXICITY OF Momordica foetida SCHUMACH AND THONN EXTRACTS AGAINST Leishmania major

Thu, 01 Jan 2015 00:00:00 GMT

ANTILEISHMANIAL ACTIVITY AND TOXICITY OF Momordica foetida SCHUMACH AND THONN EXTRACTS AGAINST Leishmania major KOECH, JOAN CHEPKEMEI Human leishmaniasis is a spectrum of diseases caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania. About 350 million people are at risk of infection, 15 million clinical cases, 1.5million annual incidence and 20- 30 thousand deaths occur annually. Treatment of leishmaniasis has traditionally relied on pentavalent antimonials which are toxic, expensive and are complicated by the variation in sensitivity of the Leishmania species and increasing levels of antimonial resistance. They also require protracted administration, and there is no vaccine at the moment, therefore, there is need for research for alternative and cheaper remedies including plant based drugs. The current study was to evaluate methanolic and aqueous extracts of Momordica foetida for antileishmanial activities and toxicity in Leishmania major infected BALB/c mice and in cell culture plates. The extracts were dried and re-dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) 1% solvent before subjecting to L. major infected mice and cultures. Parasites inhibitions were then tested with serial concentration (0.07 to 19.9 mg ml-1) of the extracts. The lesion progression and body weight measurements were recorded weekly. Mice were sacrificed by injecting pentabarbitone sodium, the spleen of each mouse was weighed and splenic impression smears made on slides for microscopy evaluation of parasites. Data was analyzed using Statgraphic software and antileishmanial activities within and between all groups, the t-test and ANOVA being used respectively. The aqueous and methanolic extracts of M. foetida inhibited the parasites after 48 hrs incubation against L. major Amastigotes and promastigotes, demonstrating MIC of 125 ± 0.01 and 250 ± 0.03 mg/ ml and IC50 of 15.6±0.05 and 23.4±0.53mg/ml, respectively. The MIC of Pentostam and Amphotericin B was at the concentration of 62.5 ± 0.02 and 31.3 ± 0.01µg/ml with IC50 of 11.7 ± 0.054 and 7.8±0.053 mg/ml respectively. The Minimum inhibition concentration for aqueous extracts (125µg/ml) demonstrated higher inhibitory factor than that of methanolic extracts (250µg/ml) by 125 units. Increased concentration of M. foetida extracts did not stimulate the macrophages to produce sufficient amount of nitric oxide, hence the extracts could be having active compounds that acted directly on parasites. Considering M. foetida with no toxicity effects in BALB/c mice and vero cells it’s an indication that it’s safe for use in the chemotherapy of L. major. By showing antileishmanial activities with no toxicity, M. foetida extracts, therefore, supports its traditional use as an antileishmanial remedy and it should also be tested against other species of the parasite such as L. donovani, L. tropica and L. aethiopica.

BAT SPECIES DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTION IN A DISTURBED REGIME AT THE LAKE BOGORIA NATIONAL RESERVE, KENYA

Thu, 01 Jan 2015 00:00:00 GMT

BAT SPECIES DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTION IN A DISTURBED REGIME AT THE LAKE BOGORIA NATIONAL RESERVE, KENYA WECHULI, BARASA DAVID Rapid population growth in many parts of Kenya, has led to increased demand for land for agriculture and settlement. This invariably leads to loss, degradation and fragmentation of forests and other natural habitats. While many studies have assessed impacts of habitat loss on many wildlife species, especially the megafauna, little is known of its impact on small mammals). In Kenya’s Rift Valley, human impacts on bat species diversity and distribution have not been evaluated. Using standard mist nets and the Baun-Blanguet method in the sampling protocol, this study assessed bat species diversity and distribution along a gradient of human disturbance among dif ferent vegetation types in and around Lake Begonia National Reserve. The study was conducted from November, 2012 to July, 2013. Cluster analysis and Detrended Corre spondence Analysis (DCA) grouped the vegetation into two broad categories on the basis of cover-abundance estimates. The assemblages were: Acacia wood land/Acacia–Commiphora woodland and riverine vegetation. Two hundred and thirty three bats representing eleven genera in seven families were recorded. These were: Epomophorus minimus, Rhinolophus landeri, Hipposideros caffer, Cardioderma cor, Lavia frons, Nycteris hispida, Chaerephon pumilus, Mops condylurus, Neoromicia capensis, Scotoecus hirundo and Scotophilus dinganii. Species richness estimators indicated sampling was exhaustive: the abundance-based Cover Estimate mean was 11.34±0.42 while the Jack 1 mean was 11.94 ±0.94. Species richness (S = 10) and di versity (D =5.72) were highest in the Acacia woodland while the more homogenous farmlands recorded the lowest species richness (S = 5) and diversity (D =1.94). No significant differences were exhibited in interaction of bat diversity and plant diversi ty among the four vegetation formation (r = 0.52, P =0.658, n=16). One way ANOVA (F=0.34, df=15, P=0.81) showed no significant differences in relative bat abundance in the four vegetation types. The low species richness and increased dominance of a few generalist species on farmlands may be indicative of different levels of disturb ance, including historical grazing by cattle and vegetation clearance that may have resulted in a relatively homogenous habitat. Future studies should focus on use of state-of the-art equipment, especially acoustic monitoring, in combination with mist netting to provide more accurate and unbiased surveys. This information will strengthen the scientific basis for the management of the Lake Bogoria National Re serve and other related savanna habitats in Kenya.

COOPERATIVE BREEDING IN THE VULTURINE GUINEAFOWL (Acryllium vulturinum) AT MPALA RESEARCH CENTER, LAIKIPIA COUNTY KENYA

Fri, 01 Jan 2021 00:00:00 GMT

COOPERATIVE BREEDING IN THE VULTURINE GUINEAFOWL (Acryllium vulturinum) AT MPALA RESEARCH CENTER, LAIKIPIA COUNTY KENYA NYAGAH, BRENDAH NYAGUTHII Cooperative breeding is widely reported across the animal kingdom. In birds, it is thought to be more common in altricial species (where chicks are dependent in the nest after hatching), with few described cases in precocial species (where chicks move independently straight after hatching). The study examined cooperative breeding in a precocial species, the vulturine guineafowl (Acryllium vulturinum), at the Mpala Research Centre, Laikipia Kenya. The aim of the study was to investigate whether vulturine guineafowl breed cooperatively, and, if so, how help is distributed among group members. To achieve this, the study determined who breeds, quantified the investments by females during incubation, and observed who is closely associated to the chicks. The study determined whether non-breeders provide care at same levels to parents, and whether they pay any costs to helping. By following colour-banded females, the study found that multiple females can breed within each group, with each female attending to her own nest. Data from sixteen incubating females fitted with solar-powered high-resolution GPS tags revealed high female attendance, with females spending 97.6% of the incubation period on the nest. In one social group of vulturine guineafowl where all individuals were colour-banded, males were over-represented among the individuals that were detected with clutches more than expected by chance, and detailed observations found that these individuals exhibited cooperative breeding behaviour including caring for the chicks by covering them, calling them if they find a food resource and guarding them. In three focal clutches from this group, the study found no overlap among individuals that were significantly associated with each clutch, suggesting that helpers specialized on specific clutches. Focal follows of clutches found that helpers provide a substantial amount of care, and as a result none of the mothers provided the majority of the care to the chicks. Finally, helping was costly, focal follows showed that helpers expressed a significant reduction in time spent foraging while providing allo-parental care (P<0.01). In conclusion, vulturine guineafowl are cooperative breeders, and express cooperative breeding that is combined with an unusual plural- breeding social system. Future research on this system could focus on determining the factors that drive helpers to specialize on specific clutches, which could reveal important insights into the fine-scale drivers of cooperative breeding